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A Glossary

OF

Mississippi Valley French

1673-1850

BY

JOHN FRANCIS McDERMOTT

WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY STUDIES -NEW SERIES LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE — No. 12

DECEMBER, 1941

Washington University

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The College of Liberal Arts

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Mary Institute, a preparatory school for girls, located at Ladue and Warson Roads, is also conducted under the charter of the University.

A GLOSSARY of

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 1673-1850

A GLOSSARY of

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 1673-1850

By

JOHN FRANCIS McDERMOTT

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY

WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY STUDIES— NEW SERIES

Language and Literature — No. 12

St. Louis, 1941

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St. Louis

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PREFACE

Ten years ago, when I began reading in the history of the Mississippi Valley, I found myself occasionally puzzled by words which were no longer current in French and by others whose meaning obviously differed from standard usage. Noticing that translators and editors frequently had the same difficulty, I started a collection of unusual and obscure terms. The present monograph is the result.

This glossary is intended for the use of students of any phase of French culture in the Mississippi Valley. It will be of use to them, I hope, in supplying meanings of words which are, to all except specialists in the French language, obscure, difficult, or commonly confused. Particularly have I been interested in new words and new meanings for old words which often are not to be found in the large standard dictionaries. I have given much attention also to interpretation of now obsolete legal and commercial tei-ms. I have included a number of Standard French words which I have repeatedly found confused and mistrans- ated. I have also included a number of other terms, commonly hsted m dictionaries, not for the sake of elucidating their mean- ing, but for the sake of illustrating and describing certain cus- toms which have grown up around them in the area of the Mis- sissippi Valley; these terms are marked with an asterisk.

The word list has been gathered from printed and manuscript sources which range the entire Mississippi Valley— from the Allegheny Mountains to the Rockies, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. Much use has been made of Canadian works, because a majority of the French people of the central part of the valley and a considerable portion of the Louisiana French were Cana- dian m origin. I have set the years 1673-1850 as approximate limits because that spread of time represents the period when Frenclimen were most active in the Mississippi Valley.

The plan of the glossary is simple. All words have been placed m one alphabetical order, with the most common spelling fol- lowed by variants. When a word is clearly borrowed from the

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Washington University

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PREFACE

Ten years ago, when I began reading in the history of the Mississippi Valley, I found myself occasionally puzzled by words which were no longer current in French and by others whose meaning obviously differed from standard usage. Noticing that ^^translators and editors frequently had the same difficulty, I started a collection of unusual and obscure terms. The present ^^ monograph is the result.

"^n/^^'" ^u''^7 '' '''^^''^^^ ^^'^ *^^ "^^ «^ «t"d^^ts of any phase rof French culture m the Mississippi Valley. It will be of use ^ to them, I hope, in supplying meanings of words which are, to ^ all except specialists in the French language, obscure, difficult, or commonly confused. Particularly have I been interested in ^ new words and new meanings for old words which often are j^ot to be found in the large standard dictionaries. I have given , much attention also to interpretation of now obsolete legal and commercial terms. I have included a number of Standard French words which I have repeatedly found confused and mistrans- lated I have also included a number of other terms, commonly hsted m dictionaries, not for the sake of elucidating their mean- ing, but for the sake of illustrating and describing certain cus- toms which have grown up around them in the area of the Mis- sissippi Valley; these terms are marked with an asterisk 1^ The word list has been gathered from printed and manuscript sources which range the entire Mississippi Valley-from the Allegheny Mountains to the Rockies, from the Great Lakes to :ahe Gulf Much use has been made of Canadian works, because I a majority of the French people of the central part of the valley I and a considerable portion of the Louisiana French were Cana- dian m origin. I have set the years 1673-1850 as approximate limits because that spread of time represents the period when . J^renclimen were most active in the Mississippi Valley |. _ The plan of the glossary is simple. All words have been placed ; m one alphabetical order, with the most common spelling fol- ! lowed by variants. When a word is clearly borrowed from the

PREFACE

Indian, I have next placed the abbreviation "Ind." Then follows the customary abbreviation to show the part of speech. The definition is given, whenever possible, in a single word. For all words of unusual meaning I have cited the authority of region- al dictionaries or have added illustrative passages from travel books and documents to show the particular sense in which the word was used. For terms descriptive of customs I have named sources where the reader will find much fuller accounts than I have had space for. For those standard but often misused words included I give the definition without citation of authority, for they are to be found in Littre. Except for words of these last two classes, current or standard uses of entries have not been mentioned.

The documentation I have made as simple and useful as pos- sible. The four studies which I have used most frequently I have referred to only by the surnames of the authors (Clapin, Read, Ditchy, Dorrance). In citing other works I have used the author's last name and a brief title. Every source mentioned is fully identified in the "Sources Consulted" that follows the word list. This list of sources (which is not intended to be a bibliography on the French language in America) I have ar- ranged in one alphabetical order, because in that form it is more conveniently useful than if it were split into several classified groups.

I wish to express my gratitude for the assistance given me by many persons and institutions. The Library of Washington University, the Missouri Historical Society, and the Mercantile Library of Saint Louis have been particularly kind in the use permitted me of their collections. The Kansas City Public Li- brary and the Stanford University Library have made special loans of rare books. The National Youth Administration and Washington University have provided me with a typist. Pro- fessors William Roy Mackenzie of Washington University and William Cabell Greet of Columbia University have given me considerable encouragement in my work. Professors Ralph P. Bieber and Bateman Edwards of Washington University, and Miss Stella M. Drumm, Librarian of the Missouri Historical So- ciety, have been kind enough to read my manuscript critically

PREFACE

and to make valuable suggestions concerning its organization and the scope of its word list. Professors Richard F. Jones, Bernard Weinberg, and Bruce A. Morrissette, and Dean F. W. Shipley have given time and assistance which I much appreciate. To Miss Annie Louise Carter, Miss Elizabeth Treeman, and Miss Alice E. Sellinger I am indebted for reading proofs.

John Francis McDermott

Washington University- Saint Louis 23 May 1941

Vll

I

CONTENTS

PAGE

Preface v

Introduction 1

Glossary ! 13

Sources Consulted 149

INTRODUCTION

Cajeu, cerne, mitas, prelat, habitant, sauvage, cotonnier, voi- ture, brulot, gourde, and assolat^ were all words in common use among the Mississippi Valley French between 1673 and 1850; yet several of them are not to be found in Littre's DictioiiTiaire de la Langue Frangaise, and for the others the meanings given in Littre are almost all quite unsatisfactory for local use. Imagine being confronted, in the inventory of an estate, with the infor- mation that an opulent French trader at Saint Louis owned two grands Prelats valued at fifty livres each, an old Prelat worth half as much, and another mechant Prelat of no value whatso- ever— a strange state of religious affairs that must seem. How astonished a Parisian would have been to hear one morning that his voiture had broken loose from its moorings and was float- ing down the river! It would not have consoled him to be told that a quickly made cajeu would carry him across the river where for a few gourdes he could readily obtain a pirogue.

There were difficulties in the language for the eighteenth cen- tury Parisian traveling in America to satisfy his curiosity as well as there are for the present-day student of men and manners in the early West. Words and phrases now misleading, obsolete, or obscure, words with a local meaning distant from that of Standard French, and words which were actually new word-stock confronted them both. Although the French used by educated people in the Mississippi Valley was as good as that spoken in any other place, the conditions of the new life obviously called for an extension of the vocabulary. The many races and nation- alities in the great territory — Canadian, Indian, Spanish, Negro, West Indian, Louisiana French, and the French of France — all contributed to Mississippi Valley French. The new fauna and flora, as well as new occupations, made necessary additional words and extended the meaning of old ones.

1 All French words cited in this introduction will be found in the diction- ary that follows; it is unnecessary, therefore, to document them here.

2 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

One considerable influence on the French vocabulary in the Mississippi Valley was that of Canada. Within a century after the founding of Quebec, settlements of Canadian French were growing up in the Illinois Country at Cahokia and Kaskaskia, and not many more years passed before the villages of Fort Chartres, Prairie du Rocher, Saint Philippe, and Vincennes were peopled from Canada. Sainte Genevieve drew its population from its parent town, Kaskaskia. Saint Louis, founded by a French- man of France, acquired its inhabitants largely from the old villages of the eastern part of the Illinois Country or from Canada. The militia lists for Saint Louis in 1780 show the diver- sity of population in the district and the preponderance of Canadians : one man was born in Spain, two were Italians, three Americans, seven were from New Orleans, twenty-four from France, forty-eight from the Illinois, and one hundred and twenty-nine from Canada.^ Louisiana, as well, owed much to the Canadians. The province and its principal towns. New Orleans and Mobile, were founded by Canadians under the leadership of members of the notable LeMoyne family, and Canadians were familiar with that country from the very beginning of the eight- eenth century. Many of the French, then, who roamed from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Appalachians to the Rockies were of Canadian origin.

It is to be expected that usages developed in seventeenth cen- tury Canada became part of the word-stock of the Mississippi Valley. One interesting illustration of the change in language brought about by a change in living conditions is the verb habiter and the nouns habitunt and habitation, which in Standard French mean "to live" or "to dwell," an "inhabitant," and a "house." In early Canada there were four classes of population : the military, the religious, the trading company and its employees, and the true colonists who had come "to dwell" permanently in the new land. Since these colonists — "inhabitants" — settled on farms and were expected to devote themselves to agriculture, the word habitant in Canada became synonymous with "farmer." The term was carried down to the Mississippi Valley in this particu- lar sense, so that in almost every instance habitant should be translated "farmer," and habitation, "farm."

2 Houck, Spanish Regime in Missouri, I, 184-189.

INTRODUCTION 3

Many other examples of such change might be cited. Hiverner, "to winter," and hivernant, "one who winters," were first used for employees of the French trading companies who stayed in Canada through the winter, but in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries these words referred to employees of the Canadian and Saint Louis houses who stayed at distant posts during the winter. The coureur des hois was not a "runner of the woods" but a free hunter who preferred life in the woods to life in the towns or in the service of one of the fur companies. A car7nole in France might be a poor excuse for a cart ; in the North Country it was a sled drawn by horse or dog. A desei^t for a native of France would be a wild or deserted country; for a Canadian it was a cultivated field. In Canada, faire le desert was to clear land for agricultural purposes.

With the Canadians, a century of gradual transformation of Standard French was brought down into the Mississippi Valley, but that was not the only race or group influence. In the South slavery meant the growth of a speech which was a cross between French and various African dialects, and words like gombo and Congo became a part of the Louisiana French vocabulary of educated people. Throughout the valley the Indians contributed many words : iiiatache for spotted or painted in the Indian man- ner, parfleche for dressed buffalo hide. A word like boucaner, "to smoke meat," traveled north from South America; tnarin- gouin, "mosquito," is another acquisition from the southern continent. Patate reached the French vocabulary through the Spanish but it came originally from Haitian batate. Pirogue was piragtm when the French took it over, but the Spanish had bor- rowed it from the Caribs. The Spanish gave the French such words as cabresse (cabestro — "halter") and marron ("wild") — the latter was a particularly useful word, for, where French sauvage meant "wild" or "savage," marron signified something once domesticated but now returned to a wild state, whether negro, horse, or cattle.

Race contacts themselves and the admixture of races demanded new words. Americans, for Canadians and for the people of the Illinois Country, were Bastonais. The native-born whites were Creoles. Canadien, even in the nineteenth century, meant the French of Canada, Mixtures of white blood and black were

4 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

described as muldtre, griff e, qimrteron. Crossbreeding of French and Indian resulted in metis and bois-brule. Zambo, gens-libre, gens de cotdeur, homme-libre, Frangais de France were other necessary terms.

It was not merely contact and gradual change that enlarged the language. The new flora required new terms, not to be found in the existing vocabulary. An important part of the Indian contribution is found in the naming of trees and plants: assi- mine, plaquemine, cassine, pacane. For other trees the French invented names: fevier (locust), bois inconnu (hackberry), bois de fleche (dogwood), bois d'arc (Osage orange). Animal life, too, called for new words. Here the Indians contributed pichou (bob-tailed wildcat) and quiliou or kiliou (calumet bird). The French added barbae (catfish), rat de bois (opossum), siffleur (groundhog), and used with new meaning outarde (Canadian goose), cerf (elk), cabri (antelope). The English contributed carencro (carrion crow, buzzard). Among the insects new to the French were the frappe d'abord and the brulot. The first was so named because "as soon as it has alighted on the skin it bites immediately."^ The other was a small black fly which attacks "the nose, the eyes, and the mouth, the mere contact of which gives a lasting sensation of a burn."*

The very important contact with the Indians made necessary a new vocabulary for the details of Indian life. The Indian wore bragiiets and mitas, or mitasses. He smoked kinikinik or bois route. He drank, on occasion, cassine and he ate his sagamite with the aid of a micouen. He listened to or gave counsel in the loge or at the feu des vieillards. When he went out with a war party under the leadership of a partisan, he left the aged and sick members of the tribe in a cache des vieilles. The discipline of a hunting camp was maintained by soldats. The soldat, or "soldier" as it is generally Englished, was an important person- age, but his duties make it clear that he should more correctly be called "police" or "military police." According to Edwin James, "on all occasions of public rejoicings, festivals, dances, or general hunts, a certain number of resolute warriors are

3 Tixier, Travels, 257. * Ibid., 85.

INTRODUCTION 5

previously appointed, to preserve order, and keep the peace. In token of their office they paint themselves entirely black ; usually wear the crow, and arm themselves with a whip or war-club, with which they punish on the spot those who misbehave, and are at once both judges and executioners. Thus, at bison hunts, they knock down or flog those whose manoeuvres tend to frighten the game, before all are ready, or previously to their having arrived at the proper point, from which to sally forth upon them. Four or five such officers, or soldiers, are appointed at a council of the chiefs, held in the evening, to preserve order amongst the hunters for the succeeding day."^

Another interesting custom among the Indians was that called by the French frapper le poteau. On ceremonial occasions war- riors would step forward, strike a post in the center of a circle, and recite their deeds of valor (coups), but every brave must then speak only truth, for the act, because of its public nature, was as binding as an oath. One of the finest exploits was in the midst of battle to strike an enemy with one's hand : Victor Tixier met an Osage brave who bore the proud name of Frappeur des chefs. Many travelers have spoken of the "crying" of the Osage, but pleurer is a weak and unsatisfactory word to describe the Indian's conduct — wailing or keening are closer synonyms. Bradbury recorded an amusing variant of this noisy mourning: "I have been informed, that when the Osages were in the habit of robbing the white settlers, it was customary with them, after they had entered the house, and before they proceeded to plunder, to black their faces, and cry. The reason they gave for this was, that they were sorry for the people they were going to rob."®

A marmiton enjoyed an official importance far different from that of a cook or scullion in a white society. He was, indeed, no ordinary fellow. "The cooks," Pike noticed in 1806, "are either for general use, or attached particularly to the family of some great man ; and what is more singular, men who have been great warriors and brave men, having lost all their families by disease, in the war, and themselves becoming old and infirm, fre- quently take up the profession of cook, in which they do not

5 Long's Expedition, I, 297.

6 Travels, 64.

6 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

carry arms, and are supported by the public or their particular patron. They likewise exercise the functions of town criers, call- ing the chiefs to council and to feasts ; or if any particular per- son is wanted, you employ a crier, who goes through the village crying his name and informing him that he is wanted at such a lodge."^ These are but a few of the words or expressions that through necessity became part of the customary vocabulary in the Mississippi Valley.

The contact with the Indians was largely governed by trade. Consequently, the fur trade has contributed much. Traite, traiteivr for the "trade" and the "trader," bourgeois and engage for "employer" and "employee" were additions to the vocabulary. The trader had to have a conge (license). Trading companies often sent men out en derouine (to trade with the Indians in their own country). Plus was a standard of value.

But even more new terms grew up with the use of the water- ways in the Indian trade and the fur-taking business. A boat was a voitu7'e; but it might, among other kinds, be a canot maitre, a canot du nord, a ph'ogue, a bateau plat, a berge, a cajeu, a boucaut. A voyageur was not a "traveler" but a "boatman" ; the day's tnarche on the water was divided into many pipes. A demi- chai-ge or portage, if more than a third of a mile, was generally divided into poses, and during the carrying each voyageur bore two pieces, one of which was suspended from his head by a filet. The boatman by old custom was allowed a filet of hard liquor two or three times a day. In addition to portages there were the traverse, the re^nous, the embarras, the chute, the chaudiere, the sault to try the skill, the patience, and the strength of the voyageur. The boat was under the command and guidance of a patron. If the voyageur on the Missouri River was a blanc-bec, a man who had never been more than a few hundred miles from Saint Louis, he could expect to be initiated when the boat passed the Platte. Detour and dalle, I'accourci and eboidement, bayou and coupe, galet and galette were all familiar terms in the vocab- ulary of the waterways.

The hunter and the trapper wandering overland found need for more terms than the names of animals cited above. The

■^ Coues, ed., Expeditions of Pike, II, 528.

INTRODUCTION 7

buffalo, of course, furnished many. For food the best part of the animal was the bosse, the fat hump, but the depouille and the plats-cotes were greatly valued, too. Pemican, dried buffalo meat, was stored and carried in taureaux, sacks made from the hide of the buffalo bull. The bull himself was a cayac. A favorite dish was boudin, a prairie sausage made and consumed on the spot. The cerne was one of the favored ways of hunting the buffalo. Bois de vache (buffalo dung) served as firewood on the open prairies.

II

The transformations of, and additions to, word-stock caused by the finding of new animals, new trees, new plants, new breeds of human beings, new occupations and ways of life account for a great part of the difference between Standard French and the vocabulary used in the Mississippi Valley. But there are other difficulties that come between the modern reader and the eight- eenth century books and documents that interest him. The great- est of these were the result of the changes brought about by the French Revolution.

While the French ruled the Mississippi Valley, the coutume de Paris was the law of the colony, and weights and measures of Paris were the standards. Acquit, conquet, and propre, com- munaute, divorce, emancipation, majorite, tutelle, syndic must be understood in the values those terms had before the Revolu- tion. The old money terms were replaced by new ones, but a reader must have a knowledge of the eighteenth century mean- ing of those terms and of their purchasing value if he is to understand the conditions of living in the Illinois Country. The piastre was in general circulation in the Mississippi Valley but it was not the same thing as the "piaster" of Turkey or of Egypt or of Indo-China. The bon was a private note which announced itself as "good for" a specified amount of a named goods, com- monly furs or lead, and rested solely upon the credit and the good name of the merchant or trader issuing it. Strange, difficult, and confusing are the old weights and measures, for within France there were a number of values attached to the same term, but that of Paris was the only true one for the colony. The English foot and the pied du roi were not the same; con-

8 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

sequently, any interpretation of the perche, toise, brasse, arpent, lieue that does not take account of such difference will be in- correct. The old pinte of Paris was the approximate equal of the English quart. The quintal was the hundredweight, but, since the pound in question was the French rather than the English, the quintal was nearly eight pounds heavier than the English hundredweight.

Time has aided the Revolution in the outlawing of words. Many terms once common are obscure today because they have passed out of use. An officier reforme was a half -pay officer, a mitoyenne was a party fence, endossement was an unturned strip left between holdings in the common-fields, a voyage was a load (of produce, wood, wheat, and so forth). Maison de poteaux en terre, ynaison de poteaux sur sole were phrases that describe types of buildings common in the Illinois Country in the eighteenth century.

Confusing also is the apparent similarity of French and En- glish words. There are many possibilities of confusion. French vacation has nothing to do with English "vacation" ; it is rather the opposite, for it means, in a legal document, the attendance or sitting, the day's labor, of the officials engaged in conducting a public sale or administering an estate — and the estate paid for the number of days of such vacation! Naturel, used with the name of a person and the name of a place, does not have the significance often attached to it in English; it merely means "native of." Emancipation in most French documents of the eighteenth century refers to the coming of age of a young man or to his release from guardianship, rather than to the freeing of a slave. A tuteur was a "guardian," not a "teacher." Ancien before a word ought not to be rendered "old" ; an ancien avocat is not an "old lawyer" but a man who formerly practised law. Sauvage often means "wild" or "savage," but when used as a noun it has almost always the significance of "Indian" and when used as an adjective often has that value: few will insist that souliers sauvages should be translated "wild shoes" or "savage slippers" or that cabane sauvage should be rendered as anything but an "Indian cabin" or "hut." A chat or chat sauvage was never a "wildcat" but always a "raccoon." A pare was not a "park" but an "enclosed field."

INTRODUCTION 9

Again, one has need to be careful of the usual translation of a French term which will sometimes be adequate but not always. Boeuf, for instance, in Standard French is "ox," and in the Mississippi Valley the word retains this meaning wherever the farm is concerned. In texts referring to the plains or hunting or the fur trade, however, it must be rendered "buffalo." Origi- nally the full name for this animal was boetif sauvage (Indian cattle) but later it was shortened to boeuf. Vache, consequently, will as often mean a "buffalo cow" as a "milch cow." But the boeuf de prairie is the "horned lizard," and the vache-d-lait is "milkweed" ! Boucaut is good in Europe or America for "hogs- head," but in America it is also "bull boat," a skin boat shaped something like a hogshead. Marais in France is "marsh" ; in the Mississippi Valley it is sometimes "marsh" but is more often applied to ox-bow lakes and open ponds. Cadet means the "younger," but it must not be mistaken (as it frequently is) for "junior," for cadet signifies not a son who bears the same name as his father, but the younger brother as distinguished from the elder.

Similarly, terms like bal des rois, charivari, and guignolee which refer to customs in the Mississippi Valley need to be under- stood as they were in the earlier centuries. It is necessary to remember, too, that divorce was only a legal separation and that the signing of the contrat de mariage was held then the practical equivalent of marriage. The customs of a district must be repre- sented in any account of the language of the district.

Ill

The sources for an investigation of such change and growth in the Mississippi Valley French vocabulary are of three kinds : contemporary documents and travel accounts, manuscripts re- cently published or republished and edited, and the work of scholars who have recorded the French language in America today.

One important source must be the documents of the period concerned. Obviously, inventories, court records, and official papers have saved in their context those words once in good use that have dropped by the way — particularly those exiled by the Revolution. The French and Spanish Archives of Saint Louis

10 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

(MSS.), Houck's SjKuiish Regime in Missouri, Margry's Decou- vertes et Mahlissements , and the Illinois Historical Collections, for instance, make large quantities of such documents available for examination.

But most important of all are the accounts written by intelli- gent and interested travelers — and these were many. Soldiers, traders, religious, scientists, explorers, seekers after health or amusement made up the bulk of these alert amateur philologists, who traveled early and late over the whole continent. The Upper Mississippi with its fauna and flora was examined by such differ- ent persons as Zebulon M. Pike, Stephen Long, J. C. Beltrami, and Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. The "North Country" was re- ported at length in the diaries of Alexander Henry and David Thompson, of Nicholas Garry and other members and employees of the British fur companies. A detailed early view of nearly the whole course of the Mississippi River — Illinois Country and Louisiana — Father Charlevoix presented in his letters to the Duchess of Lesdiguieres. Andre Michaux, coming over the Alle- ghenys in the 1790's, managed to combine botanizing with politi- cal work for Genet; his account of plant and animal life in the Illinois Country is particularly valuable because he very often cited both Illinois French and American names in addition to giving scientific classification.

On the Missouri we find travelers of all kinds: Jean Baptiste Trudeau represented one Saint Louis trading company there during the 1790's; Antoine Tabeau another a few years later. Perrin du Lac, a Frenchman, whose only apparent reason was to look at the world, made a trip up the Missouri in 1802. Lewis and Clark two years later set out on their long journey to the Pacific. Brackenridge, a young Pennsylvania lawyer with more time than practice, and John Bradbury, English naturalist, wrote parallel accounts of their trips in 1811. Major Long conducted another oflScial party in 1819 and 1820. Maximilian, Prince of Wied, an amateur naturalist of importance, needed three volumes to present the record of his American tour, much of which was devoted to the Missouri River. J. N. Nicollet, John James Audubon, and Father De Smet were other interested travelers in the Northwest. The western plains were explored and reported by such British sportsmen as Sir William Drummond Stewart,

INTRODUCTION 11

Captain John Palliser, and Charles Augustus Murray; and by official expeditions under the command of Fremont and Stans- bury.

Among the first to take particular interest in the Arkansas Country was the Jesuit Father Paul du Poisson who made many notes of river terms and of plant and animal life new to him. His account, with those of other priests, has been preserved in the Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents. Bossu, a French army officer, wrote informative letters from this district some four decades later. In the next century Pike passed through the Arkansas Valley in 1806-1807, and Nuttall, the English botanist, a dozen years after that. Victor Tixier, young French medical student in search of health, spent three months on the western plains and in the Arkansas Valley, principally in company with the Osage, in the summer of 1840. No word or phrase of Creole vocabulary escaped this amateur of language, and his interest extended from the French as spoken in America to the Osage language.

In Louisiana, Le Page du Pratz in the middle of the eighteenth century recorded in his history a great many observations con- cerning the new country and enriched the vocabulary necessary to describe it. At the time of the Louisiana Purchase, C. C. Robin, a French traveler, and William Dunbar of Natchez, a Scottish planter with scientific interests, made valuable notations of plant and animal life, Indian life and customs, boats, and other matters of interest to us today. Tixier, who spent three months on French plantations before he traveled north, noted many cur- rent terms in the Creole vocabulary which were not found in Standard French.

The travelers wandered over the entire length and breadth of the Mississippi Valley from those early days when Joliet and Marquette, when La Salle and Henry de Tonty opened the coun- try, and the notes they made of terms concerning animal and vegetable life, slavery, Indian life and manners, the buffalo hunt, the fur trade, and the river occupations have been of the greatest value in showing and explaining the extension of the French language in America.

A most helpful addition to the observations and comments of the travelers themselves is the detailed editorial work of such

12 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

men as Elliott Cones, Hiram M. Chittenden, Reuben G. Thwaites, Clarence Alvord, and Frederick W. Hodge in tracing the obscure, in making rare texts accessible, and in making available an ex- tensive knowledge of the Indian. When the traveler has failed to make himself clear enough, the investigations of an editor like Coues prove of great value. Likewise, such a study as Mrs. Surrey's Commerce of Louisiana, based largely on unpublished documents, is invaluable.

Very important, too, in such an investigation as this of the language of an earlier time are those studies that have been made of the living language. There are four monographs that have proved as valuable to me as the travelers' accounts which have provided the bulk of my word list. Sylva Clapin published in 1894 his Dictionnaire Canadien-Frangais, Sl dictionary of cur- rent Canadian usage. In 1931 Professor William Read of the University of Louisiana published his Louisiana-French, in 1932 Professor Jay K. Ditchy edited Les Acadiens Louisianais et leur Parler, and three years later Professor Ward Allison Dorrance of the University of Missouri published his monograph on The Survival of French in the Old District of Sainte Genevieve with its extensive vocabulary of French still spoken in that section of Missouri today. Without these studies, my progress would have been slower and my word list slighter.

GLOSSARY

a, prep. Used as the equivalent of the possessive de: Riviere a Jacques, fourche a Courtois, le moulin a Taillon, la vache a RenoAid (Clapin, 1; Dorrance, 52; Ditchy, 44).

absinthe, n.f. Sagebrush, wild sage, or wormwood.

Tixier stated: "the prairie was covered with absinthe" {Travels, 210) . Fremont, on the plains two years later, wrote : "The artemisia, absinthe, or prairie sage as it is variously called, is increasing in size, and glistens like silver, as the southern breeze turns its leaves to the sun" (Report of Ex- ploring Expedition, 14). See also ibid., 56, 71, 127, 147. See herbe sainte.

a^itnine, agmine. See assimine.

acquet, n.m. Property acquired before marriage by purchase or gift, but not that acquired by inheritance (Viollet, Histoire du Droit Civil Francais, 772). Cf. conquet, propre.

agres, n.m. pi. Harness (Fortier, Louisiana Studies, 186). Among voyageurs in Canada, however, the word signifies "baggage" or "equipment" (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 139). See hutin, drigail.

aguilanieu. See guignolee.

aigle a tete blanche, n.m. The bald-headed eagle. Tixier spoke of this as the calumet bird (Travels, 213, 261). See kiliou, oiseau de calumet, quiliou.

aigrette. Seeegrette.

aine, ainee, adj. and n., m. and f. Elder, the elder (of two brothers or sisters) . Often applied to the first-born son or daughter. Seldom to be translated "senior." On 12 May 1794, among those present at the meeting in Saint Louis to organ- ize the "Compagnie de Comerce pour la Decouverte des Nations du haut du Missouri" were "Chouteau, aine" and "Chouteau, cadet" (Douglas, "Manuel Lisa," 238, n. 15) ; these persons were Auguste and Pierre, the two sons of Madame Chouteau. See cadet.

14 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

alisier, n.m. The blackhaw (Read, 2).

allumer, v. tr. To light a pipe (Clapin, 344; Nute, Voyageur, 50-51).

alouette, n.f. The snipe. The meaning" in Canada and the Upper Mississippi Valley, according to Chamberlain ("Life and Growth of Words," 84). Read (5, 16) gives cache-cache as the most common Louisiana French designation.

ancien, ancienne, adj. m. and f. As in Standard French, ancien before a word means "former." Ancien capitaine, ancien traiteur should generally be rendered "former captain," "for- mer trader," i. e., one who was once a captain, a trader.

ancre, n. A barrel or cask of varying capacity. As applied by order of the Superior Council of Louisiana in 1728, 90 pounds of beef, or 22 pots (q.v.) of olive oil, or 23 pots of brandy com- prised the ancre. In 1734, however, brandy ran 16 pots to the ancre. In 1745, 10 gallons of indigo equaled an ancre, and in 1747, 28 ancres of salt pork equaled a ton (Surrey, Commerce of Louisiana, 254, 262, 274, 275, 204, 206).

animaux, n.m. pi. Domestic animals, stock (Clapin, 16; Read, 2). Standard French is bestiaux.

anse, n.f. A cove or little bay. Sometimes used for the penin- sula that forms the bay, e. g., I'Anse, on Lake Superior; cf. Anse a la Graisse, the popular name for New Madrid, Mis- souri. Fortier found anse used in Louisiana for "the prairie advancing in a wood like a small bay" {Louisiana Studies, 186) ; cf. He.

apakols, apaquois, Ind., n. A mat of reeds, used in making cabins and for various other purposes (Wisconsin Historical Collections, XVI, 366; XVII, 99 and n. 1). See ajyichhnont.

apichimont, apishemeau, Ind., n. A covering made of skins {Wisconsin Historical Collections, XVII, 116 and n. 1). In Townsend's Narrative of a Journey (145) the word appears as apishemeau, which Thwaites, the editor, explained as "mats made of reeds, used for building wigwams, carpets, beds, cov- erings of all sorts." Thwaites added: "The early Algonquian term was 'apaquois.' " Ruxton, however, described apisha- mores as "saddle-blankets made of buffalo-calf skins" {In the Old West, 102).

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 15

apishamore. See apichimont

apola, Ind., n.f. A kind of stew (Clapin, 344) or roast (Cham- berlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 140). Fremont spoke of "pieces of the most delicate and choicest meat, roasting en appolas, on sticks around the fire" {Report of Exploring Ex- pedition, 19).

appenty, n.m. A lean-to. Variant spelling of appentis.

arbitre, n.m. An arbiter or arbitrator. In Louisiana and the Illinois Country, during the colonial period, many civil actions were settled by arbitration. The appraising or awarding of disputed property, the settling of a board bill, the determining of the position of a fence, the awarding of damages for the death of a slave or for a cargo seized by river pirates — such cases were first placed in the hands of arbiters. Each party appointed one, sometimes two, arbiters; then either these arbiters selected an additional one, or the chief civil officer named one, to act as referee in case of disagreement between the others. Their decision had the weight of a court opinion. Appeal, however, could be carried through district and pro- vincial courts to the highest tribunal in France or Spain. For examples of such proceedings, consult Billon, Annals of St. Louis, 314-315; Douglas, "The Case of Pouree against Chou- teau"; Dart and Porteous, "Civil Procedure in Louisiana."

(Les) Arcs. The Arkansas Country. Aux Arcs: at the Arkan- sas, in the Arkansas Country, at the Poste des Arcansas. Cf. Kas.

argenterie, n.f. Silver trinkets used as trade goods with the Indians. Bijouterie en argent.

"Tu ne me dis rien de I'argenterie pour les Creeks" (A. P. Chouteau to Pierre Chouteau, 24 August 1829, Chouteau Papers). For a list of such trinkets, see the advertisement of Antoine Dangen in the St. Louis Enquirer, 13 December 1823.

armoire, n.f. Generally a wardrobe; sometimes a cupboard.

armurier, n.m. A gunsmith.

arpen. Common spelling for arpent (q.v.).

arpent, n.m. A unit of linear or square measure. As a unit of linear measure the arpent of Paris equaled 10 perches

16 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

(q.v.), or 180 feet (Clapin, 22) . Read (3) states that an arpent is "roughly equal to 192 feet." The explanation of this appar- ent confusion is that Clapin means French feet and Read, English. The exact figure is 191,838 English feet. See pied. As a unit of square measure the arpent of Paris equaled ,8449 English acre,

arpent de terre, arpent de face. A piece of land one arpent wide by forty deep, A double grant was eighty arpents deep. Grants, of course, were frequently more than one arpent wide {American State Papers, Public Lands, I-VII, passim) .

arpenteur, n.m. A surveyor.

asseminier. See assiminier.

assimine, Ind., n.f. The papaw, the fruit of the papaw tree. Hodge derives asimina from the language of the Illinois In- dians {Handbook, I, 101). Read (79, 90-91) declares agimine to be the correct form, and shows present-day Louisiana usage to be sometimes agmine but more commonly jasmine. Accord- ing to Dorrance (55), the Missouri Creoles still use assimine. He states that Gabriel Marest, in 1712, used the form racemina, and Charlevoix, in 1721, agimine.

assiminier, Ind., n.m. The papaw tree. Read (79-80, 91) uses aciminier and jasminier. For the first he cites Charlevoix {Histoire, III, 395). Le Page du Pratz wrote assejninier {His- toire, II, 20). See also Robin, Voyages, III, 482; James, Long's Expedition, III, 189.

Of many descriptions by travelers (not cited by Read or Dorrance), two are worth quoting. The earlier is in the "De Cannes Memoir" (1690) : "There were other trees [in the Illinois Country] as thick as one's leg, which bend under a yellowish fruit of the shape and size of a medium-sized cucum- ber, which the savages call assemina. The French have given it an impertinent name. There are people who would not like it, but I find it very good. They have five or six nuclei inside which are as big as marsh beans, and of about the same shape. I ate, one day, sixty of them, big and little" (Pease and Wer- ner, French Foundations, 320). Father Bonnecamps, on the Ohio in 1749, wrote: "Now that I am on the subject of trees, I will tell you something of the assimine-tree. . . . [It] is a

f

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 17

shrub, the fruit of which is oval in shape, and a little larger than a bustard's egg; its substance is white and spongy, and becomes yellow when the fruit is ripe. It contains two or three kernels, large and flat like the garden bean. They have each their separate cell. The fruits grow ordinarily in pairs, and are suspended on the same stalk. The French have given it a name which is not very refined, Testiculi asini. This is a deli- cate morsel for the savages and the Canadians; as for me, I have found it of unendurable insipidity" (Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXIX, 173). Tixier, in the Osage country in 1840, also described the tree and its fruit {Travels, 264).

assolat, n. A kind of broiled meat.

In 1815 Jules de Mun wrote: ". . . we made a good meal off of the beef brought by our men ; I mean to say a good meal from the hunter's point of view, a piece of meat stuck on the end of a small piece of wood which one sets before the fire and turns from time to time ; this is what is called assolat . . ." (Journals, 19). Cf. apola.

ataca, atoca, atoqua, Ind., n.m. The cranberry (Clapin, 25- 26; Wisconsin Historical Collections, XVI, 196 and n. 1).

au dit. Not "the said," but "the same," "ditto." Used in in- ventories, lists of goods, etc.

aulne, aune, n.f. An ell. A linear measure equal to "3 pieds 7 polices 10 lignes 5/6," or 1.182 meters (Littre). Alexander gave the English equivalent as 1.29972 yards {Dictionary of Weights and Measures, 5).

avilonneau. See guignolee.

aviron, n.m. A canoe paddle (Chittenden, La Barge, I, 92).

avocat, n.m. The avocado pear (Rafinesque, Medical Flora, II, 236).

ayeul, ayeulle, n.m. and f. Grandfather, grandmother. Com- mon spelling for a'ieul, aieide.

18 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

B

babiche, Ind., n.f. A leather or skin thong (Chamberlain, "In- dian Words in French Canadian," I, 232 ; Clapin, 32 ; Elliott, "Speech Mixture in Canada," 147).

baire, n.m. A mosquito bar or mosquito net (Read, 3). Cf. bie7' (bar) in Criswell, Leivis and Clark: Linguistic Pioneers, 11. See ber.

baissiere, n.f. A gully or ravine.

"During the first three miles we had to cross hills separated by large and deep coulees, (more commonly called by the voy- ageurs 'baissieres') at this time perfectly dry . . ." (Nicollet, Report, 51). See coulee. In Canada it is now applied to that part of a river below a dam or to an irrigation ditch (Clapin, 346). Ba^siere (q.v.), meaning "hollow" or "ravine," is now in use among Missouri Creoles (Dorrance, 58).

bal des rois,* n.m. The first of the "kings' balls" was held on the fete des rois, Twelfth Night.

According to Primm, at the dance given on the "day of the kings" a large cake containing four beans was cut by the girls during the evening, and "the four whose fortune it is to find the beans are declared Queens. Each of the queens then selects a young man to whom she presents a bouquet and proclaims him her King. Thereupon, a consultation is had, a night and a place are fixed for the first 'Bal de Rois' [sic] ... at which all are free to attend without further invitation. The expenses of this ball are borne by the four kings. ... At the close of this first Kings' Ball, the queens selected new kings, and they selected new queens for the next kings' ball, and thus a series of festivities was kept up, during the whole of the Carnival" ("New Year's Day in the Olden Time of St. Louis," 20-21). Primm, of French descent, was born in Saint Louis in 1810; he wrote in 1867.

Christian Schultz, who stayed for some weeks in Sainte Genevieve in 1807, reported the custom in slightly diflferent terms: "They have ... a very pretty practice of introducing their balls at the commencement of the carnival, which I shall endeavour to describe for your amusement. Two or three ladies make arrangements with their male friends for the first ball.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 19

during which two or more elegant bouquets are presented by the ladies to as many gentlemen ; this piece of ceremony raises the select number to the rank of kings, and entitles them to the privilege of saluting the fair donors. The gentlemen then each makes his choice of a favourite lady, to whom with great politeness they present their bouquets; this mark of distinc- tion likewise raises the favoured ladies to the rank of queens, and the gentlemen take their pay in another salutation for the honour conferred. This ceremony having passed, it becomes the duty of the royal parties to give the next ball, previous to which the royal ladies pass many impatient hours in waiting for the silk shoes, gloves, stockings, bracelets, ear-rings, &c. which it is expected the royal gentlemen will have the royal goodness to present. The royal parties always do the company the honour to open their balls" (Travels, II, 60-61).

banc, n.m. A canebrake.

"Farther down the marsh begins, the trees disappear and are replaced by actual forests of wild cane which go as far as the cypress grove. These bancs, as they are named in this country, are almost impenetrable. The stems of the reeds, very close to one another, are bent, broken, and intertwined by the wind. They grow in all directions. It is necessary to use an axe or fire to make any progress" (Tixier, Travels, 84).

Bande des Chiens. Band or Society of Dogs. Found among the Osage by Tixier (Travels, 129). See corps de boeufs and references given there.

banquette, n.f. Sidewalk (Read, 3-4).

baptiser, v. tr. To name, to give a name to. Frequently used without reference to the Christian ceremony of baptism (Cameron, "The Nipigon Country," 252). For the "baptism" of a fort see Luttig, Journal (Drumm, ed.), 94.

barbe espagnole, n.f. Spanish moss (Le Page du Pratz, His- toire, II, 51-53; Ellicott, Journal, 285; Tixier, Travels, 47; Read, 4; Ditchy, 45).

barbotte, n.f. A name given by the French of the Ohio Valley to the white-eyed barbot (Rafinesque, Ichthyologia Ohiensis, 84). See oeil blanc, poisson lunette.

barbue, n.f. Catfish (Read, 4-5).

20 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

bardache. See berdache.

barque, n.f. A vessel with a capacity of 45 to 50 tons; used as a freighter on the Gulf of Mexico at least as early as 1707 and on the Mississippi by 1713 ; equipped with mast and sails as well as oars, the latter added for use on the river. In 1751 six such boats carried 400 soldiers and supplies of merchandise from New Orleans to the Illinois Country (Surrey, Commerce of Louisiana, 70).

barriere, n.f. A rail fence (Ditchy, 46). See cloture de

perches. barrique, n.f. A barrel or hogshead. In 1757 four barriques

of wine equaled one tun (Surrey, Commerce of Louisiana,

206).

bas fond, n.m. A river or creek bottom (Cable, Bonaventure, 5; Coues, Henry and Thompson Journals, II, 586 and n. 9).

bassiere, n.f. A gully. Chamberlain ("Life and Growth of Words," 141) defines it as a "little coulee" (q.v.). Also spelled baissiere (q.v.).

Bastonais, n.m. Used for Bostonais (q.v.).

batard (1), n.m. The moccasin snake.

"A rarer snake, the moccasin, known by the Creoles under the name of batard de sonnette, has a skin spotted like the rattlesnake's" (Tixier, Travels, 78). See congo (1).

batard (2), n.m. A canoe which was neither "Montreal" nor "North." See canot.

bateau, n.m. Although this term might be applied to any boat, large or small, equipped with sails or oars, used on river or sea, it was used generally for larger boats only — very seldom for canoe or pirogue. For a detailed discussion of the various uses of this word, see Surrey, Commerce of Louisiana, 63-69.

bateau plat, n.m. A light, flat boat, sharp of bow and stem, of light draft and narrow beam. It was in use early in the eighteenth century for the transportation of buffalo hides down the Mississippi. In 1737 the officials of Louisiana let a contract for fifty bateaux plats, 40 by 9 by 4 feet, each of 12 tons burden (Surrey, Commerce of Louisiana, 59-61). They were not the same as the American or Kentucky flatboats. See chaland.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 21

batlment de transport, n.m. A transport boat (Surrey, Com- merce of Louisiana, 63).

baton croche, n.m. An Indian war standard.

"The baton croche of the Osage is a stick bent to a semi- circular shape and ornamented with swan's down; little bells and eagle feathers hang to the convex part of the curve. It is the ensign of the red warriors, the flag which has to be brought back in perfect condition. The council of the braves alone can designate the one who will carry the baton croche during the war expedition, . . . When the expedition has been completed, the baton croche is thrown into the fire and a new one is made when it is needed" (Tixier, Travels, 213-214). Plate 21 of the JfBth Annual Repoj^t, Bureau of American Ethnology, shows two such standards.

batterie, n.f. A threshing floor (Ditchy, 47).

batture, n.f. A sand bar or bank laid down by a river on the inner side of a turn. (Robin, Voyages, II, 282 ; Tixier, Travels, 54).

baume des sauvages, n.m. "Gnafale lilas ou baume des Sau- vages" (Robin, Voyages, III, 433-434). Rafinesque gave gynema balsamica as the scientific name (Medical Flora, II, 226).

La Baye. Short for La Baye Verte, Green Bay.

bayou, Ind., n.m. A channel no longer carrying the current of the river, but not blocked or cut off so as to form a marais (q.v.). The term "slough" is sometimes used as the equivalent, but the bayou is always a body of water, not a swamp (Robin, Voyages, II, 331; Read, 82).

bee a lancette, n.m. A common name in Louisiana for the anhinga or snakebird ; also known as the water crow, grecian lady, and cormorant snakebird (Audubon, Ornithological Biog- raphy, IV, 138).

bee croche, n.m. A common name in Louisiana for the white ibis; also known as the Spanish curlew (Audubon, Ornithologi- cal Biography, III, 178). See (petit) flamen.

bee fleur, n.m. The humming-bird (Ulloa, Memoires Philoso- phiques, II, 240).

22 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

beigne, n.m. A fried cake, a kind of doughnut.

"Sorte de gateau, frit dans le saindoux et saupoudre de Sucre, qui est en grande faveur, surtout en hiver, a I'occasion des receptions et fetes de famille" (Clapin, 41). Tixier, at dinner in an Osage lodge, was served "cornmeal dough fried in fat, a favorite delicacy which the traders call Beigne'' {Travels, 135). See also ihicl., 161. Sometimes written beigne, beignet, and, by Americans, bang. Cf. croqiiignole.

belette, n.f. The Louisiana mink (Read, 39; Dorrance, 60). The latter gives blette as a common Missouri French spelling. See foutreaii.

La Belle Riviere. The Ohio.

beluet, n.m. In Canada, the blueberry; in Missouri, the huckle- berry (Dorrance, 59). Also spelled bluet (q.v.).

ber, n.m. A mosquito bar (Ditchy, 48). Berquin-Duvallon wrote herre (Vue de kt Colonie, 107). See baire.

berdache, n.m. A hermaphrodite ; a homosexual. Also written bredache, and, by Americans, bardache and berdashe. From the evidence available, the word means "hermaphrodite" when applied to animals but "homosexual" when applied to man. Among the Missouri French today the word means "coward" (Dorrance, 59).

Tixier, on the prairie in 1840, found that "the Indians think that among the buffalo there are hermaphrodites which are called Bredaches by the Creoles" (Travels, 197). Later in his narrative he reported : "In the Head Chief's lodge lived a war- rior named La Bredache. This man, who a few years before was considered one of the most distinguished braves, suddenly gave up fighting and never left Majakita [the Head Chief], except when the latter went to war. The extremely effeminate appearance of this man, and his name, which was that of a hermaphrodite animal, gave me food for thought. Baptiste accused him of being the lover of the Woman-Chief; but the Osage tell only half of what they think" (ibid., 234). Dorsey said that "the term may be rendered 'hermaphrodite' when it refers to animals." The French Canadians, he reported, "call those men berdaches who dress in women's clothing and per- form the duties usually allotted to women in an Indian camp.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 23

By most whites these berdaches are incorrectly supposed to be hermaphrodites." Among the Omaha, according to Dorsey, the berdache is beheved to have been affected by the Moon Being on reaching puberty; he cites instances in which berdaches had taken other men as their husbands ("Study of Siouan Cults," 378-379, 516). James Teit found among the Flatheads men who dressed and lived like women ; two known specimens, however, "were full sexed males and not hermaphrodites" ("The Salishan Tribes," 384). See also Coues, Henry and Thompson Journals, I, 163-165,

Among travelers opinion generally held berdaches to be homosexuals. Perrin du Lac, 1802, stated that they were kept to satisfy the brutal passions of either sex {Voyage, 318, 352) ; the "De Cannes Memoir" reported a similar status among the Illinois Indians a century earlier (Pease and Werner, French Foundations, 329-330) . Catlin, in his Illustrations of the Man- ners, Customs, and Conditions of the Noi'th American Indians (II, 214-215), described a dance not reported by other travel- ers, the "Dance to the Berdashe." berge, n.f, A barge. The size and shape of this kind of river boat varied. In statistical lists of products sent down the Mississippi from Saint Louis, some bateaux were listed by their names such as San Francisco; others were simply listed as pirogue or berge (Houck, Spanish Regime, I, 55, and passim) .

Dunbar described a barge he obtained on the Washita in 1804: "It is upwards of 50 feet long and 8I/2 feet in breadth built tolerably flat, her bottom being still a little convex & being pretty well formed for running. This boat with some improvements is probably the best form for penetrating up shallow rivers, she is undoubtedly too long, as we shall cer- tainly meet with sharp turns among logs & perhaps rocks, the passage of which might be facilitated by a shorter boat" (Life, Letters, and Papers, 237-238).

berline, n.f. A rectangular four-wheeled cart (Dorrance, 22).

berre. See ber.

bete puante, n.f. The stinking polecat or skunk.

"On the 9th we had scarcely embarked when there came from the woods an execrable odor; we were told that there was on

24 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

the land an animal called bete puante, which spread about this offensive odor wherever it might be" (Poisson [1727], Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXVII, 303-305). See also Abel, Tabeau's Narrative, 81, n. 25 ; Ditchy, 49-50.

bete rouge, n.f. Chigger (Ulloa, Memoir es Philosophiques, I, 172-173).

biche, n.f. Literally "doe" but in general use "elk." Fontaine a biche, "Elk Spring" or "Deer Spring." See cerf.

biens immeubles, n.m. Real property.

biens meubles, n.m. Personal property.

billet, n.m. A promissory note. For the billet as a circulating medium in Canada, consult the index to Shortt, Documents Relatifs a la Monnaie. See also Surrey, Commerce of Louisi- ana, 115-154. See bon.

blanc-bec, n.m. A novice; a voyageur who had never been far from home.

"A Missouri voyageur who had never passed the Platte was called a blanc-bec; and upon his first passing he was subjected to an initiation, such as used to be given to sailors when they first crossed the equator" (James, Three Years, 20, n. 14). "The river Platte is regarded by the navigators of the Missouri as a point of much importance, as the equinoctial line amongst mariners. All those who had not passed it before, were re- quired to be shaved, unless they could compromise the matter by a treat. Much merriment was indulged in on the occasion" (Brackenridge, Journal [1811], 79). For a similar custom in Canada, see Nute, Voyageur, 40-41. Robin described in de- tail the ceremony at sea {Voyages, I, 23-25).

ble de Turquie, n.m. Corn.

Vivier, in the Illinois Country in 1750, wrote: "le mais, connu en France sous le nom de ble du Turquie" (Jesuit Rela- tione and Allied Documents, LXIX, 218).

ble d'Inde, n.m. Indian corn; corn. Much more common in American French use than ble de Turquie. See mais.

ble fleuri, n.m. Popcorn.

"There is a particular Sort of corn that opens as soon as it is laid on the Fire, they call it Bled fleuri, and it is very delicate" (Charlevoix, Letters, 238).

1

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 25

ble groule, n.m. A roasting ear.

"When the Maiz is in the Ear, and still green, some broil it on the coals, and it has a very good taste. Our Canadians call it Bled groule" (Charlevoix, Letters, 238). See mais bou- cane.

ble sarrazin, n.m. Buckwheat (Vivier [1750], Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXIX, 210-211).

blette. See belette.

bluet. The blueberry or huckleberry. See beluet.

"Us me regalerent aussi d'excellent gibier & de bluet, petit fruit qui croit dans les bois & qu'ils font secher comme nous faisons le raisin" (Bossu, Nouveaux Voyages dans VAmerique Septentrionale, 237). See also Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 22-23.

blutteau, n.m. A weaving room.

bodette, n.f . A strap bed (Alvord, Cahokia Records, 452-453).

bodewash. See bois de vache.

boeuf, n.m. This word, as applied to domestic stock, should generally be translated "ox," except where the context clearly calls for "bull." See next entry.

boeuf, boeuf sauvage, n.m. A bujffalo. The term buffle was in occasional use; precise travelers used the word bison. In the Mississippi Valley the common term was boeuf sauvage, generally simplified to boeuf. It is not to be translated "wild cattle" (see marron) or "Indian cattle." For an eighteenth century discussion of the uses of the buffalo, see Kalm, Travels, III, 60-62. For an account of buffalo hunting among the Illi- nois Indians late in the seventeenth century, see "De Cannes Memoir," in Pease and Werner, French Foundations, 307-320. For the buffalo hunt among the Osage in 1840 see Tixier, Travels, 191-197. Consult also Fletcher and La Flesche, Omaha Tribe, 271-309 ; Branch, Hunting of the Buffalo. See cerne.

boeuf de prairie, n.m. The honied lizard.

"A species of Lizzard call[ed] by the French engages prairie buffaloe are native of these [Columbia River] plains as well as those of the Missouri. I have called them horned lizzard" (Coues, Leivis and Clark, III, 899). Coues identified this rep- tile as Phyrnosoma douglasi.

26 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

bois amourette. See bois d'amourette.

bois ayac. See bois puant.

bois blanc, n.m. Basswood.

"Linden, basswood, or whitewood, Tilia americana — bois blanc of the voyageurs" (Coues, Pike's Expeditions, I, 315). According to Tabeau, the root of the bois blanc was used as a remedy for snake bite {Narrative, 80-81) ; in this connec- tion, see herbe a serpent a sonnettes.

bois bleu, n.m. The waxberry or snowberry.

"The Indian interpreter, Mr. Dougherty, also showed us some branches of a shrub, which he said was much used in the cure of lues venerea. They make a decoction of the root, which they continue to drink for some time. It is called blue wood by the French and is the symphoria racemosa of Pursh, common to the maritime states, the banks of the St. Lawrence, and the Missouri. It is here rather taller, and the branches less flexuous than in the eastern states" (James, Long's Ex- pedition, I, 129) . The symphoria racemosa or symphoria albus is identified by Bailey as the waxberry or snowberry {Hortus, 600).

bois bouton, n.m. Buttonwood, dogwood (Read, 12, 13 ;

Rafinesque, Medical Flora, I, 132) . See bois de fleche. Michaux says this name was sometimes given to the sycamore (see cotonnier) and reported a canoe 65 feet long being made from one tree (Sylva, II, 33-37).

bois-brule, n.m. A half-breed, Indian and white, particularly Indian and French. Used in northern United States and in Canada (Clapin, 48). See briile.

bois connu. See bois inconnu.

bois d'amourette, n.m. The honey or sweet locust. See Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 46-47 ; Ditchy, 165 ; Read, 58. It was also known in Louisiana as piquant amourette and piquant d'amourette. In the Illinois Country and Canada it was com- monly known as fevier epineux (q.v.).

bois d'arc, n.m. Bowwood. Now popularly known as the "Osage orange."

"Bows," wrote Bradbury, "are made of a yellow wood, from a tree which grows on Red River, and perhaps on the Arkansas.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 27

This wood is called bois jaune or bois d'arc. I do not think the tree has yet been described, unless it has been found lately in Mexico. I have seen two trees of this species in the garden of Pierre Chouteau, in St. Louis, and found that it belongs to the class dioecia; but both of these trees being females, I could not determine the genus. The fruit is as large as an apple, and is rough on the outside. It bleeds an acrid milky juice when wounded, and is called by the hunters the Osage orange. The price of a bow made from this wood at the Aricaras is a horse and a blanket. Many of the war clubs are made of the same kind of wood, and have the blade of a knife, or some sharp instrument, fastened at the end, and projecting from four to six inches, forming a right angle with the club" (Travels, 170, n. 102). Nuttall, on the Red River in 1819, found the "Bow-wood (Madura aiirantiaca) here familiarly used as a yellow dye, very similar to fustic" (Journal, 220). See also Dunbar, Life, Letters, and Papers, 315-316 ; Read, 13.

bois-debout, n.m. Standing timber. En bois-debout signifies land that has never been cleared (Clapin, 48). See grand-bois. Cf. desert.

bois de derive, n.m. Driftwood (Tixier, Travels, 63).

bois de fleche, n.m. Arrowwood, dogwood.

"The Bois de fleche, Dogwood, being the cornus or cornelian tree of the Botanists, so called probably from the fine cornelian colour of its ripe berry, is one of the most elegant ornaments of the Early Spring, it consists of two varieties, one furnishes a flower of a yellowish green inclining to white, but the flower of the other is of the most resplendent white, and the tree seldom exceeding 50 feet in height, spreads wide its low branches entirely covered with dazzling blossoms displaying the full Blaze of its beauties about the commencement of March" (Dunbar, Life, Letters, and Papers, 95). Read (13) says that in Louisiana dogwood is sometimes called bois bouton, "buttonwood." See Rafinesque, Medical Flora, I, 132.

bois de marais, n.m. The buttonwood shrub or buttonbush (cephalanthv^ occidentalis) ; also known as the little snowball (Rafinesque, Medical Flora, I, 100). See also Robin, Voyages, III, 450.

28 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

bois de plomb, n.m. The Canadian name for leatherwood (dirca pahL^tris) ; also known as moosewood, swampwood, and ropebark (Rafinesque, Medical Flora, I, 158). See also Bart- lett, Dictionary of Americanisms , 347, 404.

bois de vache, n.m. Buffalo chips. On the Great Plains dried buffalo dung, called bois de vache, was used for firewood. Fre- quently written bodeivash by Americans.

bois d'Inde, n.m. The logwood tree (Ditchy, 52).

bois d'orignal, n.m. The high cranberry (Tache, Esquisse, sec. edit., 17).

bois dur, n.m. Ironwood (Tache, Esquisse, 15; Michaux, Sylva, III, 18).

bois fort, n.m. The deep forest; heavy timber. According to Coues, this was a term for "thick woods" or "heavy timber" {Henry and Thompson Journals, I, 83, n. 4). Clapin (348) supports this interpretation. Chamberlain interpreted bois fort to mean "the deep forest, the great western country near the sources of the Mississippi" ("Life and Growth of Words," 142). See bois- franc.

bois-franc, n.m. Hardwood.

"The French give to the forests the name of Bois-francs, or Bois-forts, whenever they are not composed principally of trees belonging to the family of coniferae" (Nicollet, Report, 19). See also Thomassy, Geologic Pratique de la Louisiane, 86.

bois inconnu, n.m. The hackberry tree.

Michaux (Travels, 77, 78-79) wrote of the "Celtis occiden- talis, called by the Americans Hackberry tree and by the French Bois inconnu. . . . Celtis o. (Called in the Illinois coun- try Bois connu and towards New Orleans Bois inconnu) ." See also Read, 12-13; Michaux, Sylva, III, 26-27; Robin, Voyages, III, 359.

bois jaune, n.m. The tulip tree or yellow poplar. According to Michaux (Travels, 79) the French Creoles called the "Liriodendron tulipifera, Bois jaune (yellow wood)." See also Dunbar, Life, Letters, and Papers, 94-95 ; Michaux, Sylva, II, 24-29 ; Read, 13. The name was sometimes given to the Osage

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 29

orange (bois d'arc) ; see Brackenridge, Views of Louisiana, 119.

bois noir, n.m. The redbud or Judas tree. Michaux (Travels, 79) noted that the French Creoles called "Cercis canadensis, Bois noir' (black wood)." See also Flagg, Far West, I, 286. The Canadians, however, use bois noir for the striped maple, acer Pensijlvamcum (Tache, Esqiiisse, sec. edit., 16).

bois-pourri, n.m. The Missouri French name for the whip- poor-will (Dorrance, 61). See pomme-pourrie.

bois puant, n.m. The hop tree or wingseed. Called "Bois Ayac ou Bois puant" by Le Page du Pratz (Histoire, II, 44-45). Identified as the 'Ttelea [or] orme de Samarie" by Robin, Voyages, III, 509 and by Ditchy (52). See Rafinesque, Medi- cal Flora, II, 234 ; Bailey, Hortus, 505.

bois rond, n.m. Unhewn timbers. Cf. boulin.

bois rouge, n.m. Red willow.

bois roule, n.m. A mixture smoked by the Indians.

Among the Sioux, who called it kinikinik, this "tobacco or what the French traders call bois roule ... is the inner bark of a species of red willow, which being dried in the sun or over the fire is rubbed between the hands and broken up into small pieces, and used alone or mixed with tobacco" (Coues, Lewis and Clark, I, 139) . Coues added that the favorite barks of the Indians were: smooth sumac, silky cornel or dogwood or red willow, bearberry, and a species of arrowwood or viburnum. Tixier reported that the Osage "formerly smoked the papouah, the second bark of a species of sumac tree very common on the prairie" {Travels, 133). See kinikinik.

boisseau, n.m. A dry measure containing .36915 American bushel (Alexander, Dictionary of Weights and Measures, 10).

bois Shavanon, n.m. "Bignonia Catalpa, [called] by the French Creoles Bois Shavanon" (Michaux, Travels, 79). See also Michaux, Sylva, II, 39.

boisson, n.f. Drink, hard liquor; a drinking match. Boisson signified any strong liquor (Clapin, 48). This term was also used for the drinking matches staged by the Indians in their villages or near a trading post (Roderic McKenzie, "Reminis- cences," 12).

30 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

bois tor, n.m. "So-called climbing bitter-sweet, Celastrus scandens" (Coues, Henry and Thompson Journals, I, 172). It is, Henry wrote, "a short shrub that winds up the stocks of larger trees; the wood is soft and spongy, with a thick bark, which is often eaten by the natives in time of famine. There are two species of this shrub ; one grows thicker than the other and is very sweet, but too astringent. The other kind is more insipid and less wholesome. They cut it into pieces and boil it a long time, when the bark is peeled off and eaten without further preparation. I have subsisted on this bark for days, but always found my weakness increased upon me" (ibid.).

bon, n.m. A personal note which circulated as money.

The lack of circulating medium caused the bon to be used in Canada at least as early as 1683. "Instead of the creditor drawing orders on a merchant, the merchant issued to his creditors promises to pay, which were still chiefly redeemable in goods rather than money. But they had an additional ad- vantage of serving as a form of money, much of which re- mained in circulation instead of being immediately converted into goods. Thus was developed the system of bons, from the introductory words etc." (Shortt, Documents Relatifs a la Monnaie, I, 61, n. 2). In the Illinois Country the bon was gen- erally good for a specified number of shaved deerskins or pounds of lead. Although the billet also circulated, it was properly a note made out to a specific person ; the bon gener- ally did not bear the name of a creditor, but of course carried the signature of the merchant or trader giving it. Typical bons will be found in Dorrance, 28-29; Alvord, Cahokia Records, 218-219 and n. 1.

bonhomme, n.m. A title of respect, used in the same manner as "Goodman" in early New England, e. g., Goodman Andrews.

boscoillot, boscoyo, n.m. A cypress knee.

"The roots grow very far and form knees from which hard, pointed, and smooth excrescences grow to the height of four or five feet. These points, called boscoyos by the Spanish, are found in enormous numbers in cypress groves" (Tixier, Trav- els, 66). See also Ellicott, Journal, 285; Read, 14. Read gives a second form boscoillot, and treats it as a Louisiana French word. Ditchy spells it bouscouyou.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 31

bosse, n.f. Buffalo hump.

bosseman, n.m. The man whose duty, during the cordelling of a boat, "was to watch for snags and other obstructions, and to help steer the boat by holding it off the bank with a pole" (Chittenden, La Barge, I, 104). Robin spelled the word hos- man {Voyages, II, 212).

Bostonais, n.m. An American. Originally applied by the Canadian French to the New Englander with whom they came into contact, it was carried by Canadian settlers to the Illinois Country and used there synonymously with "American" (Clapin, 38; Dorrance, 61; Featherstonhaugh, Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor, II, 3) .

botte sauvage, n.f. A moccasin.

boucan, n.m. A smokehouse; a place where meat is smoke- dried (Clapin, 51). See boucane?- (1).

boucane, n.f. Smoke (Dorrance, 61; Read, 82).

"On fait de la boucane, c'est-a-dire, un grand feu, que Ton etouffe ensuite avec des feuilles vertes" (Poisson, Jesuit Rela- tions and Allied Documents, LXVII, 294) . Poisson's party was making a smudge for protection against mosquitoes. Boucane may be any kind of smoke.

boucaner, boucanner (1), v. tr. To smoke (meat, fish, tobacco, etc.) (Clapin, 62; Read, 82-83).

"Les Sauvages retirent un grand avantage de ces boeufs; ils en font boucaner la chair, qui, de cette maniere, se conserve, sans avoir ete salee. . . . Nos aventuriers Francois adopterent ce mot lorsqu'ils s'etablirent parmi les Sauvages pour chasser. lis firent boucaner de la viande; ils nommerent le lieu de Taction boucan, et les auteurs boucaniers" (Bossu, Nouveaux Voyages dans VAmerique S e ptentr tonal e, 104, 178-179). Cf. also mdis boucane.

boucaner (2), v. intr. To smoke (Read, 82; Dorrance, 62).

boucanerie, n.f. A smokehouse (Read, 82; Dorrance, 62).

boucanier, n.m. One who smokes meat. See boucaner (1).

boucaniere, n.f. A smokehouse (Read, 82; Dorrance, 62).

boucaut (1), n.m. A bull boat. Made of large buffalo hides stretched over willow poles, the bull boat could carry five or

32 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

six persons or a quantity of baggage. It was used primarily for ferrying (Surrey, Commerce of Louisiana, 55).

Tixier described a typical scene when the Osage, on the hunt, arrived at the Arkansas River (1840) : "II fallut con- struire des boucauts (bull-boats) pour les bagages. On etendit des peaux de loges, dont on releva les bords qui furent solide- ment attaches, de sorte qu'elles formerent une espece de bat- teau carre. On langa sur la riviere ces freles embarcations, chargees, outre les bagages, des jeunes enfants et des petits chiens. Les hommes et les femmes entierement nus, se mirent a la nage et les pousserent sur I'autre rive" (Voyage, 233). See also Chittenden, La Barge, I, 96-102; Coues, Henry and Thompson Journals, I, 331-332.

boucaut (2), n.m. A hogshead. The regulations of the Supe- rior Council of Louisiana in 1728 fixed the boucaut of beef and lard at 360 pounds ; of olive oil and white wine at 100 pots (q.v.) ; of red wine, rum, and vinegar at 110 pots; of brandy at 150 pots; of salt and sugar at 500 pounds (Surrey, Com- merce of Louisiana, 254, 260, 262, 274, 280) .

boudin, boudin blanc, n.m. Prairie sausage.

"A sort of sausage, boiled and eaten hot" (Stansbury, Ex- ploration of the Salt Lake Valley, 35). The preparation of this favorite dish from the freshly killed buffalo was described in detail by Meriwether Lewis: "From the cow I killed we saved the necessary materials for making what our wright- hand cook Charbono calls the boudin (poudingue) blanc, and immediately set him about preparing them for supper; this white pudding we all esteem one of the greatest del[ic]acies of the forrest, it may not be amiss therefore to give it a place. About 6 feet of the lower extremity of the large gut of the Buffaloe is the first mo[r]sel that the cook makes love to, this he holds fast at one end with the right hand, while with the forefinger and thumb of the left he gently compresses it, and discharges what he says is not good to eat, but of which in the s [e] quel we get a moderate portion ; the mustle lying underneath the shoulder blade next to the back and fillets are next saught, these are needed up very fine with a good por- tion of the kidney suit [suet] ; to this composition is then added a just proportion of pepper and salt and a small quantity of

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 33

flour; thus far advanced our skillful opporater C — o seizes his recepticle, which has never once touched the water, for that would intirely distroy the regular order of the whole pro- cedure; you will not forget that the side you now see is that covered with a good coat of fat, provided the anamal be in good order ; the operator sceizes the recepticle I say, and tying it fast at one end turns it inwards and begins now with re- peated evolutions of the hand and arm, and a brisk motion of the finger and thumb to put in what he says is bon pour manger; thus by stuffing and compressing he soon distends the recepticle to the utmost limmits of it's power of expansion, and in the course of it's longitudinal progress it drives from the other end of the recepticle a much larger portion of the — [sic] than was prev[i]ously discharged by the finger and thumb in a former part of the operation ; thus when the sides of the recepticle are skilfully exchanged the outer for the inner and all is compleatly filled with something good to eat it is tyed at the other end, but not any cut off, for that would make the pattern too scant ; it is then baptised in the missouri with two dips and a flirt, and bobbed into the kettle; from whence, after it be well boiled it is taken and fryed with bears oil untill it becomes brown, when it is ready to esswage the pangs of a keen appetite or such as travelers in the wilderness are seldom at a loss for" (Thwaites, Original Journals of Leivis and Clark, II, 15-16). See also ibid., II, 74, 207, 266; Tixier, Travels, 195; Fletcher and La Flesche, Omaha Tribe, 273-274.

bouleau a canot, n.m. The canoe birch (betula papyracea) of the Canadians; also called boideau blanc (Michaux, Sylva, II, 50).

bouleau batard, n.m. The river birch or black birch.

"Betida spuria called by the French bouleau batard" (Michaux, Travels, 83). See also Bailey, Hortu^, 88. bouleau blanc. See bouleau a canot.

boulin, n.m. Log used in building houses or fences.

"Troncon d'arbre brut, ou fondu par la moitie dans sa longeur, qui sert a faire les clotures de nos champs" (Clapin, 53). But Alvord thought: "This [word] probably means the

34 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

upright posts, grooved on two sides, which the French used in building their houses. These posts were set in the ground a few inches apart with the grooved sides together. The space left was filled with 'cat and clay' — the cat being finely cut straw or moss — and the grooves prevented the filling from falling out" (Cahokia Records, 284, n. 1).

bourgeois, n.m. In the fur trade of the West and North, a partner in a company who was in charge of a trading post or expedition was called a bourgeois. "Bourgeois des Postes: — Contremaitre d'un poste a fourrures. Celui qui dirige I'ex- ploitation d'un territoire, d'un poste de chasse" (Clapin, 55).

bouscouyou. See boscoillot.

bousillage, bouzillage, n.m. A mixture of clay with grass, straw, hair, or moss used as chinking between logs in a build- ing or as plaster over them. Robin reported that in Louisiana "bousillage est compose de terre trituree, detrempee et melee de barbe espagnole" (Voyages, III, 172).

bousiller, v. tr. To plaster or chink with bousillage.

bouts, n.m. pi. The end men in canoes.

braguet, n.m. A breechcloth. The braguette was the codpiece of fifteenth century masculine costume. In the Mississippi Valley braguet (so spelled) was appHed only to the Indian breechclout. Tixier described it as "a piece of cloth passed between the thighs and fastened to the belt at both ends" {Travels, 124). Perrin du Lac gave a history of the garment: "Espece de tablier s'attachant fortement au bas des reins, et qui est destine a cacher les parties naturelles; les premiers FranQois qui vinrent habiter le Canada y apporterent ce vete- ment, qu'ils ont conserve et qu'ils ont communique a tous les Sauvages du nord de I'Amerique" {Travels, 223). See also Arese, Trip to the Prairies, 169.

braie. Another form for braguet (Stewart, Altoivan, I, 51). brasse, n.f. A linear measure of 5 yieds equal to 5.328 English

feet or 1.624 meters (Clark, Metric Measures, 11). bredache. See berdache. brigade, n.f. A brigade. In the fur trade a party of hunters

or trappers sent to the fur country or a party of boatmen and

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 35

assistants sent to trade with the Indians was called a brigade (Chappell, History of the Missouri River, 272).

brin, n.m. Hemp (Alvord, Cahokia Records, 450-451).

brochetau, n.m. A name given by the French on the Missis- sippi River to the gar (lepisosteus platostumus) ; also known as the duckbilled gar, alligator gar, alligator fish, or gar pike (Rafinesque, Iclithyologia Ohiensis, 136). Other local French names were picaneau, poisson arme, poisson cciinuin (q.v.).

brule, n.m. A half-breed ; a burnt tract of forest. An abbrevi- ated form of bois-brille (q.v.) (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 142 ; Clapin, 60) .

brulot, n.m. A kind of gnat or midge.

Although these small flies have not been identified, many travelers testify to their violence. Poisson, on the Arkansas in 1727, wrote: "There are here the frappe-d'abord, and the bridots; these are very small flies whose sting is so sharp — or, rather, so burning — that it seems as if a little spark had fallen on the part they have stung" {Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXVII, 293). Arese, on the Vermilion River in the Northwest in 1837, wrote: "The night was made horrible without a minute of sleep because we were so tor- mented ... by the brulots, another species that takes its name from the agreeable effect produced by its sting" {Trip to the Prairies, 74). Tixier, in the Arkansas Valley in 1840, also met these ". . . small black flies which attack the nose, the eyes, the nostrils, and the mouth, the mere contact of which gives the lasting sensation of a burn. They are called bridots" {Travels, 85). Le Page du Pratz declared the bridot was no bigger than the head of a pin {Histoire, II, 149) ; Michaux declared that one could see a brulot only under the microscope {Journal, 85). See also. De Smet, Life and Travels, II, 620- 621. Probably the brulot and the buffalo gnat of Gregg {Com- merce of the Prairies, II, 28) are the same insect. In the Minnesota Country the word is used for midges.

bucher, v. intr. To wood.

Sire, on the Missouri River, 15 June 1845, recorded: "En- core arrete aux cotes qui trempent a I'eau a gauche pour bucher, perdu environ 2 heures pour nous en procurer 4

36 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

cordes"; on 24 June he noted: "Cette place en cas de besoin sera bonne pour bucher en descendant" (Log Book, 104, 107) .

bucheur, n.m. A woodcutter.

"L'arbre choisi est attaque au niveau de I'eau a coups de hache ; il est important pour les negres de bien diriger la chute du cypre [q.v.] , qui pent les ecraser ; aussis des bucheurs neg- ligents ont-ils ete quelques fois victimes de leur manque d'atten- tion" (Tixier, Voyage, 37). See also Clapin, 61; Dorrance, 63.

buffle, n.m. The buffalo fish. See carpe. Sometimes used for "buffalo," but see boeuf, boeuf sauvage.

butin, n.m. Baggage ; merchandise ; property of any sort.

"This word butin seems to be a remnant of buccaneering times, and to have been applied to luggage and personal prop- erty of every sort from the time of the first French flibustiers or freebooters, and to have come from the Gulf of Mexico, up the Mississippi, the Ohio, and all the great water communica- tions, for the Kentuckians and generally the Americans in the southern parts of the Republic have literally translated the word into plunder" (Featherstonhaugh, Canoe Voyage tip the Minnay Sotor, I, 163). See also Clapin, 61-62; Ditchy, 60. See agres, dr-igail.

butte, n.f . A hill ; a knob. Used in the North and Northwest. See cote, coteau, ecore, mamelle.

cabanage, n.m. A group of temporary shacks erected for sea- sonal work, as at the salines or mines, e. g., Cabanage a Renaudiere. Also applied to an encampment or camping place for the night: "Ainsi nous etions exposes a ne point trouver de cabanage, c'est-a-dire, de terre pour faire chaudiere et pour coucher" (Poisson [1727], Jesuit Relations and Allied Docu- ments, LXVII, 286).

cabane, n.f. A camp or temporary shelter. Seldom to be rend- ered "cabin," as that term is used for the American frontiers- man's house, but see cabane a negres.

cabane a castor, cabane de castor, n.f. A beaver dam (Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, I, 251).

cabane (cabanne) a mahis, n.m. A corncrib.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 37

cabane a negres, n.f. Negro cabins; i. e., slave quarters (Robin, Voyages, III, 171-173; Tixier, Travels, 46-47).

cabaner, cabanner, v. intr. To encamp ; to build shacks.

"Le 12, nous cabanames aux Ecors blancs" (Poisson [1727], Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXVII, 310) .

cabanne, part. Housed (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 141).

cabinet, n.m. A sleeping room; a clothes closet (Clapin, 63; Read, 16).

caboteur, n.m. A boatman or keelboatman. When Tixier called "les caboteurs du Mississipi, cette plaie de la Louisiane," he was probably voicing the opinion of the Creole plantation owners with whom he was associating {Voyage, 30). See also Blair and Meine, Mike Fink, King of the Mississippi Keelboat- men.

cabree. See cahri.

cabresse, n.f. A halter rope. From Spanish cabestro: "halter," or "a rope made of hair" (Read, 132) . "Nous campions le soir sans loges, laissant nos chevaux enferges, libres avec une longue cabresse qui trainait a terre" (Tixier, Voyage, 240).

cabri, n.m. The American antelope, in the parlance of fur traders, Santa Fe traders, and others. Frequently written by Americans: cabrie or cabree. Tabeau wrote it cabril (Abel, Tabeau's Narrative, 11) .

cache, n.f. Literally, a hiding place ; in practice, a temporary (often hidden) place of deposit, by hunters, trappers, or trad- ers, of supplies or accumulations of furs; frequently, buried stores.

That it was not always hidden is made clear by Dunbar: " 'Cache la Tulipe' (Tulipe's hiding place) this is the name of a french hunter who concealed his property in this place. It continues to be a practize of both white and red hunters, to deposit their skins &c. often suspended to poles or laid over a pole placed on two forked posts in sight of the river, untill their return from hunting; these deposits are considered as sacred and few examples exist of their being plundered" {Life, Letters, and Papers, 245). In Maximilian's Travels (III, 76), cache was used as the equivalent of store.

38 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

cache-cache, n.m. The snipe (Audubon, Ornithological Biog- raphii. III, 323; Read, 16). See alouette.

cache des vieilles, n.f. Literally, "the hiding place of the old women." When the plains Indians went out on the warpath or the buffalo hunt, those too old or too sick to travel with the tribe were "hidden" from enemies in a new encampment some little distance from the permanent village and with them were placed any valuable possessions too bulky for the journey. An excellent description of such a cache des vieilles is that by Jules de Mun (1816) : "After having made a short halt to await those of our men who had remained behind, I started ahead and at the end of a good league I arrived at the Cache des Vielles which A [uguste] had had much difficulty in finding and which he had not reached until afternoon.

"Whenever the inhabitants of the village go off on a hunt they put their corn in some place removed from the woods where they think there is less risk of its being discovered by their enemies and they leave one or two old men and all the old women of the village to guard the cache ; one must see such an assembly in order to get any idea of it, walking corpses, decrepits, most of them blind in one eye or almost blind, and just as squalid as it is possible to be. In the lodge where I found A [uguste], there was a young woman who had remained to look after her husband who was sick. As soon as the latter had offered me his hand his wife placed before us bowls filled with crushed corn boiled in water but barely cooked ; she also sent some to our men, who had just arrived with the loads. Having eaten nothing all day, I appeased my hunger with this sort of pap which under other circumstances I could not have looked at without it turning my stomach. At nightfall and rain threatening, we had everything which ran the risk of getting wet put into the lodges, and we decided to sleep here. The men and horses crossed the Marmiton on which river the cache was located and camped on the opposite bank. The cache consisted of five lodges, two large and three small ones. In the one where we are lodged there are two fires and it is im- possible to stand up in it owing to the smoke. We lay down midst a dozen old carcasses who in order to alleviate the itch-

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 39

ing caused by vermin, scratched their emaciated bones with corn-cobs, and it was to the sound of this sweet music that I fell asleep. . . . This [another] cache consists of five lodges whose inhabitants appear far more clean than those at the Marmiton and these are nearly all young women who belong to the families of the chiefs; everything is also much more comfortable than at the other cache both as to food and con- venience of the lodges. One cannot say that prudery is a strong characteristic of these ladies ; they are so brazenly licentious that it is quite disgusting" (Journal, 26-30). Cf. Tixier, Trav- els, 112. cacher, v. tr. To hide by burying or covering; to store.

cadet, adj. and n. Younger, the younger. But the term is to be applied only to persons of the same generation ; it is never to be translated "junior." See aine.

]\Iany members of the Chouteau family and other persons concerned with the history of Saint Louis have assumed that references to Cadet Chouteau were always to Pierre Chouteau, Junior. This was true only in part: Pierre junior was the second son and was therefore called Cadet. Pierre his father was also a younger son and as late as 1822 was still on occasion referred to as Cadet. A number of references will illustrate this distinction : at the sale of the Cambas property, 10 Decem- ber 1784 (five years before Pierre junior was born), "Mr. Cadet Choteau" was written down as surety for Louis Lafleur ; his accompanying signature was Pre Chouteau (Fr. and Span. Arch. St. L., No. 2669). On 26 June 1817, John B. C. Lucas informed his son James that "Mr. Le Due ... is to accom- pany young Cadet Chouteau in a journey intended for the recovery of his health" and in a letter of 22 January 1822 Lucas declared that "Le Vieux Cadet is now quite polite to me . . ." (Letters of J. B. C. Lucas, 13, 169). The St. Louis Enquirer on 22 September 1821 informed its readers that "Mr. Pierre (Caddy) Chouteau, Senior, in consequence of the solici- tations of several citizens, has consented to become a candi- date at the approaching senatorial election, to fill the vacancy occasioned by General Pratte's resignation." See also Mc- Dermott, "Cadet Chouteau — an Identification."

40 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

cage, n.f. A raft. In Canada, a log or lumber raft (Clapin, 64-65) . In the Mississippi Valley, a raft chiefly used for ferry- ing or lightening purposes. See cageux, cajeu.

cageur, n.m. A man employed on a lumber raft (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 137; Clapin, 65).

cageux, n.m. Raft. For the making of a simple cageux see Arese, Trip to the Prairies, 80. See cage, cajeu.

Caho, Cahos. Abbreviations for Cahokia.

cai. See caille.

caiac. See cayac.

caille, adj. Spotted or piebald.

"Caille in the Creole language means spotted or piebald," wrote Tixier, referring to a village of the Osage which he said was called the Maisons C allies (Travels, 128, n. 30). "Se dit des taches irregulieres, noires et blanches, ou blanches et rousses, de la robe des chevaux, boeufs, vaches, etc., et aussi du plumage des poules" (Clapin, 65). "His companion . . . had caught up the horse he had hitherto led, which was of that spotted color they call cai" (Stewart, Altowan, I, 38). Cf. caille de prairie, "meadowlark" (Dorrance, 64). According to Dorrance (64) and Read (16-17) this word caille, used with a qualifying term, is applied to many songbirds.

cailleau, n.m. The Louisiana name for the sagetree or blue- berry (Rafinesque, Medical Flora, II, 235). Robin identified caille eau (sic) as the Louisiana name for camara annuel or lantana (Voyages, III, 385).

caiman, n.m. The common Louisiana name for the crocodile (Robin, Voyages, III, 291). Read (133) says this term is used chiefly for a "large alligator with prominent scales" and cocodrie for a smaller type.

caissette, n.f. A trunk or box. Variant for cassette. Not a diminutive. Frequently used for personal baggage or for mer- chandise. Bradbury, on the Upper Missouri with the Astoria party in 1811, wrote that "as the Canadians would not be permitted to take their trunks, or, as they termed them, their caissettes, by land, I purchased from them seventeen, in wiiich I intended to arrange my living specimens, having now col-

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 41

lected several thousands" (Travels, 168). A, P. Chouteau in a letter to his brother-in-law Bernard Pratte (1824) referred to an order of 30 caissettes, 2 to 21/0 feet long, for the Indian trade. cajeu, n.m. A raft. See also cage, cageux.

Diron d'Artaguiette wrote in 1723: ". . . we perceived in the middle of the river two men on a raft (cajeu) made of three pieces of wood tied together" (Mereness, Travels in the American Colonies, 54). Surrey (Commerce of Louisiana, 59) described the cajeu in the south as "made of strong canes bound tightly together in such a way as to form a light vessel useful in making crossings from one bank of a river to the other." Le Page du Pratz called it a pontoon made on the spot (Histoire, I, 230; II, 186-187). In a letter from A. P. Chou- teau to P. M. Papin, Verdigris, 6 April 1824 (Chouteau Collec- tion, Mo. Hist. Soc), the term, there written cayeux, seems applied to something more substantial than Surrey's rafts — apparently these were used during low water to transport furs downstream to a larger boat. Cf . boucaut.

caleche, n.f. An open, two-wheeled carriage (Clapin, 65; Dor- rance, 22).

calumet, n.m. A pipe. For the nature, variety, and importance of the calumet consult Hodge, Handbook, I, 191-195. See also Tixier, Travels, 144, 230 and n. 18, 261. See danse du calumet, oiseau du calumet.

camp, n.m. Among Canadian lumbermen and boatmen, a camp or campe was a temporary shelter built in the woods (Clapin, 66). In Louisiana it often signified the group of cabins or little houses in which were lodged the workers on a plantation or those employed in the making of sugar, etc. (Ditchy, 67).

campe, n.f. See camp.

campement, n.m. A stopping place for the night. The word campement did not imply any kind of shelter (Wilcocke, "Death of Frobisher," 215).

Canadien, Canayen. French Canadian. Not applied to persons of British stock.

42 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

canard branchu, n.m. The wood duck.

Robin pointed out that its name was derived from its habit: "il se perche sur les arbres ; ce qui le fait nommer dans le pays, a plus juste raison, canard hranchu" {Voyages, III, 307). See also Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 115; Tixier, Travels, 175; Read, 17-18.

canard cheval, n.m. The Louisiana name for the canvasback duck (Audubon, Ornithological Biography, IV, 1).

canicanick. See kinikinik.

canon, n.m. The large, tubular bead used in the Indian trade {Wisconsin Historical Collections, XVI, 45, n. 1). Cf. 7^assade.

canot, n.m. A canoe. Used both for the birchbark and the dugout — in the Mississippi Valley, however, the latter was gen- erally called pirogue (q.v.). According to Chittenden, the Mis- souri River canoe was a dugout, not bark. There were several sizes of bark canoes built: the canot maitre or canot du maitre (Montreal canoe) was about 36 feet long, 4 feet wide, 21/2 deep in the middle and 2 feet deep at bow and stern; it carried 14 men and a corresponding amount of merchandise. The canot du nord, about 25 feet long, carried 8 men ; the canot hdtard, 10 men. The canot de charge was a heavy laden freight boat. The term cayiot allege was used sometimes for an Indian canoe of 10 to 15 feet and sometimes for one without freight. (Sur- rey, Commerce of Louisiana, 55-58 ; Nute, Voyageur, 23-32 ; Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 139).

canotee, n.f. Canoe-load (Coues, Henry and Thompson Jour- nals, I, 291).

capitzune, capitaine des sauvages, n.m. A term or title often used for an Indian chief as recognized by the French authori- ties.

capot, n.m. "A sort of mackinaw coat of blanket material, topped with a hood for rain or snow" (Dorrance, 64-65). The early notion of travelers that the Mississippi Valley French, like the Indians, wore blankets was probably derived from the blanket stuff of the coats.

carancro. See carencro.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 43

carcajou, n.m. The wolverine.

Michaux referred to it as "un animal tres ruse que les Canadiens nomment Carcajou" (Journal, 83-84). See also Chamberlain, "Indian Words in French Canadian," I, 270; Audubon and Bachman, Quadrupeds, I, 212.

carencro, n.m. The buzzard. A contraction of the English carrion crow. Read says that the turkey buzzard is properly carencro tete rouge and the black vulture is carencro tete noire (20-21). Description can be found in Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 111-112 (spelled there carancro) ; Bossu, N021- veaux Voyages aux hides Occidentales, II, 133-134 (spelled karancro) ; Robin, Voyages, III, 67; Tixier, Travels, 34, 50-51. See dance du carencro.

cariole, carriole, n.f. "A convenient wooden sledge, dra^vn by one horse" (Maximilian, Travels, III, 53). Gates, however, speaks of the cariole as a dog sled (Five Fur Traders, 52, n. 38).

carotte, n.f. Leaves of tobacco twisted or rolled into the shape

of a carrot — the common form in which tobacco was stored

and sold in the Mississippi Valley. carouk, n. The red-breasted snipe; also known as becassine

de mer (Audubon, Ornithological Biography, IV, 287; Read,

6). carpe, n.f. The common name in the South for the buffalo-fish

(Read, 22).

carre, n.m. "All that square part of a house below the roof" (Alvord, Cahokia Records, 286, n. 2; Ditchy, 69). But see grand carre.

cartouche, n.f. Discharge papers (army).

Among papers listed in the inventory of the estate of Com- parios (former soldier) was "Sa cartouche pour son conge absolu" (Fr. and Span. Arch. St. L., No. 2351).

Cas. Sometimes used as an abbreviation ior Kaskaskia (q.v.).

casburgot, n.m. Identified by Read (22) as the fresh-water or common sheepshead fish. Maximilian, however, thought it was the buffalo-fish: "At this place [near Arrow Rock, Mis- souri] we heard a strange noise under the boat which my

44 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

people affirmed was produced by the prickly fins of the fish by them called casburgot, or malacigan {Castastoiinus carpio, Les.), and by the Americans, buffalo-fish" {Travels, III, 122). Read spelled it also casse-burgau. Cf. buffle, carpe.

cassant, n.m, "La farine de mais aigrie, cuite en bouillie, se

nomme cassant" (Robin, Voyages, III, 40). casse-tete, n.m. A tomahawk. cassette, n.f. A box or trunk. See caissette.

cassine, Ind., n.f. The black drink.

A drink made by boiling the leaves of the ilex cassine (the yaupon tree) in water (Hodge, Handbook, I, 150). One of the best descriptions of the drink and the ceremony of drink- ing is that of Bossu: "All the Allibamons drink the Cassine; this is the leaf of a little tree, which is very shady; the leaf is about the size of a farthing, but dentated on its margins. They toast the leaves as we do coffee, and drink the infusion of them with great ceremony. When this diuretic potion is prepared, the young people go to present it in calebashes formed into cups, to the chiefs and warriors, according to their rank and degree. The same order is observed when they present the Calumet to smoke out of: whilst you drink they howl as loud as they can, and diminish the sound gradually; when you have ceased drinking, they take their breath, and when you drink again, they set up their howls again. These sorts of orgies sometimes last from six in the morning to two o'clock in the afternoon. The Indians find no inconveniencies from this potion, to which they attribute many virtues, and return it without any effort" {Travels, 249-250).

After Tixier had opened a Choctaw grave in Louisiana in order to examine the state of the bones, Pierre Sauve said to him: "On their return they will engage in their 'medicine' to find out what became of the bones you will take away, for it is impossible to conceal from them the visitation we are going to commit. They will guess you were the one who opened their tombs, but it remains to be seen whether the truth will be revealed by the juice of the cassine they will drink or by information cleverly gathered" {Travels, 81).

See also Charlevoix, Letters, 341-342 ; Ellicott, Journal, 286-

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 45

287. Tixier's description of coffee {manka-saheh, "black medi- cine") among the Osage sounds as if that drink might be re- lated to cassine; see Travels, 135, 161, 201.

cassinier, n.m. Ilex cassine, the yaupon tree. Robin described the tree {Voyages, III, 513). Consult Read, 84-86.

catalogne, n.f. A home-made carpet: rag rug, mat, etc. (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 139; Clapin, 71).

catherinette, n.f. The dwarf raspberry (Tache, Esquisse, sec. edit., 17).

caution, n.f. A guarantor; surety; bondsman.

In a contract it was expected that the purchaser or under- taker "sera donne Bonne et sufisante caution domiciliee en ce poste." The following sample caution is from an adjudication of negroes belonging to the minor heirs of Dr. Conde, 5 July 1778: "Item. A Ete mis en vente le nomme Claude mulatre qui apres plusiers Eucheres a Ete adjuge au Sr Caspar Roubieu pour la somme de onze Cent quatre vingt une livres en paux de chevreuil ou Castor, lequel au meme instant a presente pour caution la personne du Sr Louis dubreuil Negociant de ce poste qui a volontairement accepte le present cautionnement et S est oblige Sous L hypoteque generale et speciale de tous ses biens meubles et immeubles presents et avenirs de payer la dite somme au terme y devante explique au deffaud du Sr Roubieu y en paux de Chevreuil" (Fr. and Span. Arch. St. L., No. 2501).

cayac, cayak, n.m. A buffalo bull. According to Tixier this is "a Creole word for male bison" (T^-avels, 168). Neither Clapin nor Dorrance lists it. Read (141), in his list of words of Spanish derivation, has katac meaning a "big, powerful fellow" — he says the word comes from "Standard-French game, the name of the lignum-vitae tree {Guajacum officinale L. and Guajacum sanctum L.)." He adds that "Canadian- French has kaiac in the sense of 'lignum vitae', as in the phrase une toupie en katac, *a spinning-top of lignum-vitae wood'." Tixier's authority apparently was either Pierre Meli- court Papin or some of the half-breeds in his employ. His interpretation is reinforced by a comment by J. J. Audubon on the Upper Missouri River, 18 August 1843 : " 'Kayac' is the French Missourian's name for Buffalo Bluffs" (Audubon-

46 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

Cones, Aitdvbon and his Journals, II, 154) . Sir William Drum- mond Stewart noted that "Cayack [is] a name given to a bison bull, by the mountain men" (Edward Warren, 364 n.). Kurz wrote cayak {Journal, 117).

cayeux. See cajeu.

cedriere, n. f. A cedar grove or forest (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 136).

cerf, n.m. Elk.

"My guide killed an Elk called Cerf by the Canadians and French of Illinois" (Michaux, Travels, 72). "Corne du Cerf, Elk Horn River" (Bradbury, Travels, 78). Cf. chevreuil.

cerise a grappe, n.f. The choke-cherry (Maximilian, Trav- els, II, 83-84 ; Townsend, Narrative, 249, 268 ; Abel, Tabeau's Narrative, 93).

cerise a sable, n.f. The dwarf cherry (Tache, Esquisse, sec. edit, 16).

ceme, n.m. In Americanese, the surround. From Standard French cemer, to encircle. Tixier explained the word as "chasse du bison," but the term described a manner rather than a subject of hunting. Tixier's remarks about deerhunt- ing (Travels, 169) fill the demands of ceme; his buffalo hunt (ibid., 189 ff.) was certainly not conducted as a ceme. The best description of this manner of hunting is Tabeau's; see his Narrative, 245-248, and Dr. Abel's editorial comment (ibid., 116, 257).

chaland, n.m. A small, flat-bottomed boat made of planks (Read, 135).

Tixier defined chalands as "bateaux plats (flat-bottom boats)" (Travels, 54, n. 27). Robin interpreted the word similarly: "les autres [bateaux] sont massivement de larges carres longs, comme ceux appeles chalans" (Voyages, II, 208).

chaloupe, n.f. A sailing vessel used in coast transport and on the lower Mississippi River (Surrey, Commerce of Louisiana, 61-62).

champ, le grand champ, n.m. The common-field. Also known as the grand carre or quarre.

In addition to a house lot the inhabitant of a village was granted one or more lots in the common-fields, that portion

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 47

of the nearb}" lands set apart for cultivation. Such lots (gen- erally one arpent front by forty deep) were granted in strips after the manner of land distribution in medieval Europe and became the private possession of the individual holder. The common-field was separated from the commons by a fence of which each person was required to maintain the section that crossed his land. Consult Houck, History of Missouri, II, 24- 25, 233 (Houck pointed out that in 1907 the "big field" of Sainte Genevieve was still cultivated in this manner) ; Amer- ican State Papers, II, 182-185, 194. For an account of the common-field at Sainte Genevieve see Brackenridge, Vieivs of Louisiana, 227-228. For the care of such fences at Saint Louis (1782) and at Sainte Genevieve see Billon, AiiTials [1764- 1804] , 216-220 and Dorrance, 23-24. Cf . pare, py-airie.

chantier, n.m. A boatyard; a woodyard; a lumber camp; a house or hut.

Every important trading post in the nineteenth century had its own navy yard, Chittenden declared (La Barge, I, 96). Woodyards, for supplying fuel, were scattered along every river frequented by steamboats. Clapin (75), however, cited a different use for chantier in the north woods: "Etablisse- ment regulierement organise dans les forets, en hiver, pour la coupe des bois." Also: "Morgan has gone again to the 'Chantier,' a place in the forest up the river where workmen and laborers under his direction are getting beams ready for the palisades" (Kurz, Journal, 122).

The word was also used for house or hut (modern English : shanty). "Here we were fixed for the winter in new and com- fortable chantiers with plenty of firewood and good acces- sories. . . . We put up the chantiers, store, &c and passed the winter" (John McDonald, "Autobiographical Notes," 14, 20).

chantre, n.m. A lay singer in the church. In the absence of the priest the chantre baptized and officiated at burials. See Houck, Spanish Regime, I, 117.

Cha-oua-non, Ind., n. and adj. Shawnee.

charbon. See danse du cJiarbon.

charbonniere, n.f. A coal-hill.

"The charboniere is on the right bank of the Mississippi. This name was given to it by the boatmen and the earliest

48 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

settlers, on account of several narrow beds of coal, which appear a few feet from the water's edge, at the base of a high cliff of soft sandstone" (E. James, Long's Expedition, I, 125- 126). See also Charlevoix, Letters, 281; Bradbury, Travels, 194. charivari,* n.m. A raucous serenade in celebration of a wed- ding; particularlj^ a kind of hazing for a person marrying a second time. The cacophony did not cease until the groom invited the serenaders into the house for refreshments or gave them money to drink elsewhere.

J. Long amused himself in this manner: "Presuming on my appearing exactly like a savage, I occasionally went down in a canoe to Montreal, and frequently passed the posts as an Indian. Sometimes I would distinguish myself at a chari- vari; which is a custom that prevails in different parts of Canada, of assembling with old pots, kettles, &c. and beating them at the doors of new married people ; but generally, either when the man is older than the woman, or the parties have been twice married : in these cases they beat a charivari halloo- ing out very vociferously, until the man is obliged to obtain their silence by pecuniary contribution, or submit to be abused in the vilest language" {Voyages and Travels, 71). See also Flint (who spelled the word cherrivaree) , Geography and History of the Mississippi Valley, I, 471 ; John Darby, Per- sonal Recollections, 147-148. Dorrance (66) says the form in use among Missouri French today is cJutrigari. Shivaree is the Americanized form.

charme, n.m. The name used by the French of Upper Louisi- ana for the American hornbeam (Michaux, Sylva, III, 17).

charrette, n.f. A cart. Sometimes used to designate a small carriage or one-seated buggy.

According to Billon the charrette was "constructed of two pieces of scantling some ten or twelve feet long framed to- gether by two or more cross pieces, upon one end of which the body, of wicker-work, was placed, and the front ends rounded to serve as shafts, and the whole set on the axletree of the wheels" {Annals of St. Louis [1764-1804], 85). Char- rette a hie, wheat-cart. Charrette a hois, wood-cart. See also Dorrance, 21-22.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 49

chat, chat sauvage, n.m. The raccoon.

"Le chat sauvage (en anglais rackoon)" (Cortambert, Voy- age, 36) . Although the raccoon officially was the chat sauvage, in common practice the fur trade used chat alone. Cf. pichon, tig re. Louisiana French today has chaoui (Read, 87-88) ; Cable spelled it chat-oue {Bonaventure, 75).

chat-tigre, n.m. Louisiana French for cougar (Read, 101). See tigre.

chaudiere (1), n.f. Rapids that bubble and boil as water does in a kettle (Clapin, 78).

chaudiere (2), n.f. A meal or dinner. Faire cJmudiere, faire la chaudiere: "to prepare a meal" (Poisson, Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXVII, 286, 294) . See chaudiere haute.

chaudiere de guerre, n.f. The war kettle. According to Tixier the chaudiere de guerre was filled with a mixture of pulver- ized charcoal and fat; as soon as a warrior was accepted for an expedition he painted himself black from head to foot with this mixture (Travels, 211 ff.). See danse du charhon. See Fletcher and La Flesche, Oviaha Trihe, 405 ff.

chaudiere de medecine, n.f. The medicine pot; that is, the content rather than the container, a ceremonial dish. Accord- ing to Tixier among the Osage "there is only one meal which is a formal pledge to follow the partisans : the last one eaten at the lodge is the 'medicine pot'. They give this name to a dish of beans boiled in water" {Travels, 217). See medecin, medecine, natte de guerre.

chaudiere haute, n.f. Meal, dinner.

"Nous cabanames sur la premiere batture pour faire secher nos hardes et pour faire chaudiere haute. Ces repas que I'on fait apres une bonne chasse, sont tout-a-fait a la sauvage; rien n'est plus plaissant" (Poisson [Arkansas, 1727], Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXVII, 314). See chaudiere (2).

chaudron, n.m. A large kettle, boiler, caldron. Dorrance (67) says that today among Missouri Creoles this is a tin bucket for water or milk.

chef -lieu, n.m. Seat of government for a district. Fort Chartres was the chef-lieu for the Illinois Country until vacated by St.

50 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

Ange in 1765 ; Saint Louis was the chef -lieu for the Western Illinois (Upper Louisiana) from the arrival of St. Ange until the transfer to the United States. Although the most im- portant fort of the district was located at the chef-lieu, the term is civil rather than military in its significance.

chemin croche, n.m. An Osage sign to announce the presence of many buffalo.

Tixier declared that, when the scouts, sent out from the hunting party to search for buffalo, wished to announce the discovery of many buffalo, "ils firent le chemin croche" ; that is, instead of returning to the camp in a straight line, they ran back in zigzags {Voyage, 189).

cheminee d'ecrevisse, n.f. The little tower or cylinder built up by the crawfish at the mouth of its burrow (Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 157; Tixier, Travels, 52).

chenall. Variant spelling of c/ieiiai {Q-V.).

chenal, n.m. A channel.

"Chenal est un chemin que les eaux se font elles-memes, a la difference de Canal, qui est un ecoulement ou passage des eaux fait par mains d'hommes" (Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, I, 152). Chenal ecarte: a narrow channel. Seldom used for the main channel of the river. See Ditchy, 74 ; Ramsay, Intro- duction to a Survey of Missouri Place-Names, 32-35. Some- times spelled chenail.

chene a gros gland, n.m. The bur oak or overcup white oak was so named by the Illinois French (Michaux, Sylva, I, 17).

chene a lattes, n.m. The lath or shingle oak; known among Americans as the jack oak, blackjack oak, or laurel oak (Michaux, Journal, 124; Michaux, Sylva, I, 35; Bailey, Hortiis, 514).

chene frise, n.m. The overcup white oak.

"Quercus cerroides (by the French [called] chene frise and

by the Americans overcup White Oak)" (Michaux, Travels,

73). chene vert, n.m. The live oak. cheniere, n.f. An oak forest. In Louisiana, a live oak forest,

according to Read, 25.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 51

chessaquoy. See chichakois.

chevelure, n.f. A scalp. See danse du chevelure.

chevrette, n.f. Shrimp.

"Sorte de diminutifs d'Ecrevisses" (Le Page du Pratz, His- toire, II, 157-158). See Read, 26.

chevreuil, n.m. The dwarf deer.

"Le daim, que les Frangais de ce pays appellent chevreuil" (Cortambert, Voyage, 36). ". . . the dwarf Deer of the United States of which there is an abundance also in the Illinois Coun- try and which the French of these countries call Chevreuil" (Michaux, Travels, 72). See Audubon and Baclinian, Quad- rupeds, II, 79-80. See also cerf.

chichakois, Ind., n.m. A rattle used for ceremonial music. Also spelled chessaqiiois, chichicois, chichikois, chichicoya, cicikoics, schischikue, sysyquoy.

Perrin du Lac, describing a seedtime festival among the Arikara, wrote of the "Petites calebasses ou citrouilles, dans lesquelles ils introduisent des cailloux; ces instruments leur servent a marquer la le mesure . . . au bruit des chichakois [les vieillards] chantent tout le jour pour obtenir du grand Esprit une abondante recolte" (Voyage, 271) . Clapin (80-81) spells this word chichikois: "le vrai mot sauvage de cet instru- ment etrange est chichigoiMue, de chichigoue signifiant ser- pent a sonnettes, sans doute par analogie avec le bruit de gi'elots de la queue de ce reptile." See Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, I, 108, n. (chichicois) ; Pease and Werner, French Foundations ("De Cannes Memoir"), 364, 366, 370, 390; Beltrami, Pilgrimage, II, 241; Hodge, Handbook, I, 958-961; II, 355-356; J. Long, Voyages and Travels, 85; Maximilian, Travels, II, 120; Wisconsin Historical Collections, XVI, 367.

chicot (1), n.m. A sawyer, snag, stump.

"The Sawyers, called by the Canadians Chicots" (Collot, Journey, II, 137). "The submerged trunks of trees, called snags or sawyers, as they are either stationary or moveable with the action of the current; by the French they are called chicos" (Nuttall, Travels, 6?,) . Dorrance (68) lists a Missouri French verb, chicoter, "to whittle," which seems related to chacoter (Saintonge) : "tourmenter un morceau de bois avec

52 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

son couteau" (Clapin, 81). Chicoter (v. tr.) Clapin defines as "to provoke," "to irritate," "to egg on" ("agacer quelqu'un d'une faqon deplaisante"). chicot (2), n.m. The Kentucky coffee-tree.

". . . the guilandina dioica of Linn., Marshall, &c. but re- ferred by Michaux to the new genus gymnocladus, of which it is the only well ascertained species. It is common throughout the western states, and territories, and in Canada, where it is called by the French Chicot, or stump tree, from the naked- ness of its appearance in winter. In the English gardens, where it has been cultivated many years under the name of hardy bonduc, it has attained considerable magnitude, but has not hitherto been known to produce flowers" (E. James, Long's Expedition, I, 213, n. 161). See also Michaux, Sylva, I, 122. Bailey (Hortus, 164) gives the botanical name as gymnocladus dioica. See (gros) fevier.

chien. See petit chien.

chien de prairie, n.m. The kit fox (Tache, Esquisse, sec. edit., 119).

chopine, n.f. A liquid measure equal to one-half pinte (q.v.) or nearly equal to the English pint (.12302 gallon) (Alex- ander, Dictionary of Weights and Measures, 21).

chou gras, n.m. The pokeweed or pokeberry (Robin, Voyages, III, 369; Read, 27).

chute, n.f. A waterfall. In the plural, rapids. Americanized into "shoot." Cf. chaudiere, sault.

cicikoics. See chichakois.

cipre, n.m. Cypress (Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 30-34). More commonly spelled cypre (q.v.).

cirier (1), n.m. The wax tree.

"In this vicinity [New Orleans], and still more towards Mobile, grow in abundance the trees called Vax-trees' [^driers'], because means have been found to extract from their seeds a wax, which, if properly prepared, would be almost equal to French wax" (Vivier [1750], Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXIX, 212-213). See also Charlevoix, Let- ters, 342 ; Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 36-40 ; III, 368-369 ;

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 53

Bossu, Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes Occidentales, II, 120- 121 ; Robin, Voijages, III, 522 ; Nuttall, Sylva, I, 43.

cirier (2), n.m. The cedar waxwing.

"This bird's inner primaries, and sometimes its tail feathers, are tipped with horny red bits that look like drops of sealing wax. Hence the name cirier, Svaxmaker'." Also known as murier, because it is fond of berries, and ortolan because of supposed resemblance to the European bird. In Canada, known as the recollet, its crest suggesting the Franciscan hood (Read, 27).

citron, n.m. The fruit of the May apple (Don^ance, 68).

citronelle, n.f. A kind of horsemint (Robin, Voyages, III, 387;

Bailey, Hortus, 400). See herhe a houton. cllsse, n.f. In the bark canoe the clisse was the "strip between

the varangues [q.v.'] and the bark" (Chamberlain, "Life and

Growth of Words," 139). cloche, n.f. The large bell used to call farm-hands to meals. ". . . que la Cloche etant atachee sur des Poteau plante en

terre et couverte avec des planches . . ." (Alvord, Cahokia

Records, 390) .

cloture de perches, n.f. A rail fence. See barriere.

cochon de bois, n.m. According to Flint this was one Louisiana name for the opossum (Geography and History of the Missis- sippi Valley, I, 101-102). See rat de bois.

cocodri, cocodrie, cocodril, cocodrile, n.m. Crocodile. See cawmn.

cocombe, n.m. Cucumber.

college, n.m. The equivalent of the secondary school, similar to English usage, as in "Eton College." Not to be rendered "college" in the American sense.

college des Jesuites, n.m. A college only in the sense used in the organization of the English university, i. e., a living ar- rangement for those studying together. The Jesuit College at Kaskaskia in the eighteenth century was not a school for the higher education of the young in the Illinois Country but the seat of the Jesuit organization there.

54 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

commandeur, n.m. An overseer; a gang boss or foreman.

"Les negres doivent . . . se rendre au champ. ... lis sont conduits ou par un commandeur negre, ou par un econome blanc . . ." (Robin, Voyages, III, 173). "On remarque que les negres qui n'ont jamais ete punis evitent les chatimens par une bonne conduite; ils se font meme une gloire de n'avoir point ete fouettes ; mais aussitot que le comr)iandeur , qui execute les sentences du maitre ou de I'econome, les a f rappes une fois, tout est change . . ." (Tixier, Voyage, 31).

commis, n.m. A clerk. In the fur trade the clerk, though an employee, differed from the engage in that he was a prospec- tive hoiirgeois (q.v.).

communaute, n.f. Community of property between husband and wife, the terms of which were generally established in the marriage contract. Specific amounts of money or its value in goods were contributed by each party in the contract; on the death of husband or wife the remaining partner was entitled to one-half of the joint estate, the other half being divided equally among the children. The survivor, however, if it was to his financial advantage, might renounce the community and withdraw from the estate his original contribution. The com- munity might also be renounced during the lifetime of both parties. During its existence the cotninunaute operated as a partnership in which each had equal interest. Consult Viollet, Histoire du Droit Civil Francais, 771-794 ; Coiitumes de Paris, I, 383-430.

commune; (terre) en commun, n.f. Commons. The area of land set apart and used in common by all inhabitants of the village for the gathering of firewood and the pasturage of animals. Not to be confused with common-fields, which were areas designated for cultivation. The term commune, how- ever, was not in general use ; at Saint Louis, for example, the expression sur la prairie or la gy^ande prairie signified "on the commons" or "the commons." Generally the fields under cul- tivation were protected by a common fence ; the pasture lands were open. Concerning the commons at Saint Louis consult Houck, History of Missouri, II, 25. See also American State Papers, Public Lands, II, 182-183, 194, 254, 671-672. See champ, grand carre, pare, prairie.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 55

concession, n.f. In the South, a large grant generally made to persons of wealth and rank in contrast to the small grants made to habitants. In Upper Louisiana, however, the term was used to describe any grant of land from the Spanish government, irrespective of persons or quantity of land.

"A certain tract of land granted by the Company of the Indies to a private individual, or to several persons who have together formed a partnership, for the purpose of clearing that land and making it valuable, is called a 'concession'. These are what were called, when the Mississippi was in greatest vogue, the 'Counties' and 'Marquisates' of the Mississippi; the concessionaries are, therefore, the gentlemen of this country. The greatest part of them were not people who would leave France ; but they equipped vessels and filled them with super- intendents, stewards, storekeepers, clerks, and workmen of various trades, with provisions and all kinds of goods. . . ." (Poisson [1727], Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXVII, 281-283) . See also Burns, "The Spanish Land Laws of Louisiana," and "Spanish and French Ordinances Affecting Land Titles."

conge, n.m. A license to trade in the Indian country.

Congo (1), Afr., n.m. The Creole and Acadian name for the water or cotton-mouth moccasin (Read, 121-122). See also Tixier, Travels, 78-79; Berquin-Duvallon, Vue de la Colonic, 105. Cf. bdtard (1).

Congo (2), Afr., n.m. The French dialect spoken by the negroes of Louisiana. Also known as gombo (q.v.) or negre (q.v.). Consult Tinker, "Gombo: the Creole Dialect of Louisi- ana."

conquet, n.m.. Property acquired during the existence of com- munaute (q.v.) between husband and wife other than that by direct inheritance (Viollet, Histoire du Droit Civil Franqais, 772). Cf. acquit, prop^^e.

consideres, n.m. pi. The principal men, below the great chiefs, of an Indian tribe.

"Terme usite dans le pays et le seul qui puisse rendre le mot employe par les Sauvages pour designer des hommes qui, sans avoir un pouvoir reel, en ont cependant un d'opinion" (Perrin du Lac, Voyages, 201, n.).

56 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

contrat de mariage, n.m. Marriage contract. Under French and Spanish civil law in the eighteenth century, marriage was a civil institution which was to be ratified by a religious cere- mony. The contract, drawn up by a notary and signed be- fore witnesses, could be followed immediately by the con- summation devoutly to be wished if there were no priest in the neighborhood to perform the religious ceremony. In the Illinois Country man and wife frequently lived together in a legal and respectable state and sometimes had two or three children before they were "churched." The terms of the com- munaute (q.v.), the amounts contributed, the relationship of witnesses, and other pertinent matters were all part of the contract. See Houck, Spanish Regime in Missouri, I, 119. More than one hundred such contracts may be found in the French and Spanish Archives of Saint Louis. Consult also: Dart, "Marriage Contracts of French Colonial Louisiana" ; Cruzat, "Marriage Contract of d'Iberville" ; Porteous, "Mar- riage Contracts of the Spanish Period in Louisiana."

copal, copalm, n.m. The liquidambar or sweet gum tree.

"The Copal is another tree, from which issues a gum that diffuses an odor as agreeable as that of incense" (Marest [Kaskaskia, 1712], Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXVI, 227). "Liquidambar stryaciflus [called] by the French of Louisiana Copalm. ... A Frenchman who traded among the Cheroquis Savages cured himself of the Itch by drinking for ten days a decoction of Chips of that tree which he called Copalm and which is the true Liquidambar" (Michaux, Ti^av- els, 11). See Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 27-29; Michaux, Sylva, II, 30 ; Read, 139-140.

corail, n.m. A corral, yard, or enclosure (Read, 140; Ditchy, 80). Fortier spelled the word corrail (Louisiana Studies); Robin, corraille (Voyages, III, 28). Cf. jmrc.

corbeau, n.m. The crow — an ornament worn by Indians during the war dance.

"The corbeau is an ornament made with the feathers of the crow; it is tied to an embroidered sash on the back of the wearer. The head and tail of the animal are the two ends of a waving mass of black feathers, attached to a cushion from

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 57

which project four curved branches provided with porcupine quills and ending in a cluster of little bells. The side of the cushion which touches the body of the dancer is convex, so that when he jerks the branches violently, the feathers wave and the bells tinkle. The brave who has killed and scalped a man in the midst of his companions is the only one entitled to wear the crow during war dances. This ornament is care- fully kept in a case of hardened bison skin ; it is never worn on expeditions" (Tixier, Travels, 213). See also E. James, Long's Expedition, I, 235, and Fletcher and La Flesche, Oinaha Tribe, 279, 282, 441 ff.

cordeau, n.m. A towing-line (Bradbury, Travels, 122). The term in more common use was cordelle. The cordeau or cor- delle came into use for river traffic about 1750 (Surrey, Com- merce of Louisiana, 73). For a description of cordelling see Chittenden, La Barge, I, 104-106.

cordelle. See cordeau.

cornier, n.m. The Canadian mountain ash; also known as masquahina (Tache, Esquisse, sec. edit., 17).

corps de boeuf, n.m. The Buffalo Society or Band. For an

account of this and other bands among the Mandans see Maxi- milian, Travels, II, 291-296. Consult also Dorsey, Omaha So- ciology, 342-355; La Flesche, Rite of Vigil, 205-212. Tixier mentioned this society as the corps de boeuf s among the Osage {Travels, 219).

corrail, corraille. Variant spellings of corail (q.v.).

cote (1), n.f. A hill. Butte in the north and northwest, cote in the central part of the Mississippi Valley were terms for a clearly defined hill in contrast to ridge (coteau, q.v.) or river bluff {ecore, q.v.). Cf. ynamelle, teton.

cote (2), n.f. A bank (of a river) ; a coast. Cote des Alle- mands: the German Coast; i. e., in Louisiana that part of the bank of the Mississippi on which Law's German colonists were settled. In the Illinois Country a la cote d'Espagne was the Spanish (west) side of the Mississippi.

coteau, n.m. A ridge, height of land, divide.

58 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

Coteau des prairies, Coteau du Missouri. The divide between the Mississippi and the Missouri drainage systems.

"The basin of the Upper Mississippi is separated, in a great part of its extent, from that of the Missouri, by an elevated plain; the appearance of which, seen from the valley of the St. Peter's [the Minnesota], or that of the riviere Jacques, looyyiing as it ivere a distant shore, has suggested for it the name of Coteau des Prairies. Its more appropriate designa- tion would be that of plateau, which means something more than is conveyed to the mind by the expression, a 'plain. . . . The plateau dividing the waters that empty into the Tchan- sansan (riviere Jacques) from those that flow into the Mis- souri. ... is known as the 'Coteau des Prairies du Missouri', or, more shortly, 'Coteau du Missouri' " (Nicollet, Report, 9, 35-36). Cf. butte, cote (1), ecore, mamelle.

coter, V. intr. To coast; to skirt a wood on the prairie (Fortier, Louisiana Studies, 185). Cf. nxiviguer au large.

Cote sans Dessein. The name of this French settlement in Missouri has occasionally caused trouble. It was, of course, not a "hill without shape" but one "without purpose" — a hill so located that there seemed no reason for its being. Appar- ently the Missouri River once flowed on the north side of this long, narrow hill and later cut a new channel to the south so that this hill was cut off' from the hills or bluffs that one would ordinarily expect to find with it.

cotes brulees, n.f. pi. Burnt hills, black hills. This name was commonly applied by Canadian voyageiirs to arid and sterile hills in the Northwest that presented a burnt and blackened appearance; it was not used for an area ravaged by fire (see hrule) . Terres brulees was sometimes used synonymously with cotes brulees.

cotonnier, n.m. Sycamore.

"Platcmus occidentalis, by the Americans [called] Sycamore and by the Illinois French cotonnier" (Michaux, Travels, 11). See also Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 40. Not the cotton- wood: see liard. Sometimes called bois bouton (q.v.).

coucou, n.m. The yellow-billed cuckoo, more commonly known as the rain crow or cowbird (Audubon, Ornithological Biog- raphy, I, 19; Pvead, 30).

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 59

coulee, n.f . A gully or ravine.

"We passed numerous transverse valleys coming into the Mississippi at right angles, about 1200 yards wide, all of them presenting mural escarpment like those on the banks of the Mississippi. The Canadians call these transverse valleys 'coulees' . . ." (Featherstonhaugh, Canoe Voyage up the Min- nay Sotor, I, 220). See also Keating, Long's Expedition, I, 362 ; Murray, Travels in North America, II, 134 ; Clapin, 95 ; Read, 165-166. See haissiere.

coup, n.m. A blow or stroke. Faire coup: to kill or strike an enemy; to steal horses.

"The capture of a prisoner confers the highest honour on the captor. Striking an enemy, whilst active, appears to be the second in rank, of their great martial achievements. Strik- ing his dead, or disabled body on the battle field, confers the third honour. Capturing a horse may be regarded as the fourth; presenting a horse to any person, the fifth, and the shooting, or otherwise killing of an enemy, by a missile, is the sixth in point of rank of military deeds, in the estimation of the Omawhaws. The taking of a scalp is merely an evi- dence of what has been done, and, of itself, seems to confer no honour" (E. James, Long's Expedition, II, 82). See also Tixier, Travels, 217, 228, 238; Fletcher and La Flesche, Omalia Tribe, 437-439; Hodge, Handbook, 1, 354. See f rapper au poteau. L'amiee du coup in the history of Saint Louis was "the year of the attack" (1780).

coupe, n.f. A cut-off.

"Passed la coupe a VOisselle. This name originated, in the circumstance of a trader having made a narrow escape, being in the river at the very moment that this cut-off was forming. It had been a bend of fifteen miles round, and perhaps not more than a few hundred yards across ; the gorge, which was suddenly cut through by the river, became the main channel. This was effected in a few hours. ... At ten passed a similar cut-off called l<i coupe a Jacque" (Brackenridge [1811], Jour- nal, 80-81).

coupon, n.m. A piece. E. g., coupon d'indienne: a piece of calico.

60 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

coureur de derouine, n.m. A "travelling salesman" in the In- dian trade. See derouine.

coureur des bois, n.m. A hunter or trapper, living in the woods, engaged in gathering furs, who came to the settlements only to sell fur and purchase supplies. For an elaborate analysis of this word see Saunders, "Coureur de Bois : A Definition."

cousin, n.m. An expression of intimacy used for any degree of relationship; not to be relied upon as indicating cousinship.

coutume de Paris, n.f. By edict of Louis XIV all French colo- nies were placed under the "common law of Paris." For local affairs the coutmne de Paris remained in effect during Span- ish occupancy of the Mississippi Valley.

couverte, n.f. Blanket. Standard French: couverture.

couverture, n.f. The roof of a building, both the framework and the covering material ; also the covered deck of a canoe (Clapin, 98). Cf. tendelet.

crachats de serpent a sonnettes, n.m. pi. "The tall grasses were covered with a white substance in which horse-flies breed. In Louisiana this substance is called crachats de serpent a sonnettes, it is believed that these reptiles leave their slime on the grass" (Tixier, Travels, 257 and n. 26).

crapaud, n.m. Literally, toad. Freely used as a term of re- proach. "Qui est infame, canaille" (Clapin, 99).

crapaud volant, n.m. The nighthawk (Audubon, Ornithologi- cal Biography, II, 275; Read, 32).

Creole, n.m. and f. A white person born in America of Euro- pean ancestry. As a noun this word is never applied to a mixed blood. It is used principally of the Mississippi Valley descendants of French and Spanish immigrants before 1803. Many travelers could be called to give evidence. Among others, Karl Postl wrote of "Louisiana ... its white inhabi- tants, the Creoles" (The Americans as They Are, 168, 169). Charles Lyell, the English geologist (1846), was more specific and emphatic: "The word creole is used in Louisiana to ex- press a native-born American, whether black or white, de- scended from old-world parents, for they would not call the aboriginal Indians Creoles. It never means persons of mixed

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 61

breed; and the French or Spanish Creoles here would shrink as much as a New Englander, from intermarriage with one tainted, in the slightest degree with African blood" (Second Visit, II, 93-94) . Lyell is wrong in applying the term to blacks unless he has in mind the adjective Creole (q.v.). Dorrance (5) cites the Dictioyinaire Generale de la Langue Franqaise of Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, which lists the word as derived from criollo (Span.) and accepted by the Academy in 1762: "Individu de race blanche ne dans les colonies espagnoles de I'Amerique ; par extension, individu ne dans certaines colonies europeennes intertropicales." Littre (Dictionnaire de la Langue Francaise) defines Creole as a white person born in a colony.

Although generally applied to French and Spanish descen- dants in the lower IMississippi Valley, it has been used for any descendants of Europeans. Charlevoix wrote: "Mathieu Sagean est Creole de Canada," meaning a native of Canada (Margry, Decoiivertes et Etablissements de Francais, VI, 95). Lambert spoke of "the Creoles of Canada, both French and English," and explained the word Creole in a note : "By Creoles, I mean the descendants of Europeans, born in Canada, in con- tradistinction to natives of Europe, who may be settled there; and not (as many persons imagine) the offspring of black and white people, who are properly called 'people of colour, or nudattoes" (Travels in Canada, I, 275). The term has also been applied to the descendants of German settlers in Louisi- ana: consult Deiler, "The Settlement of the German Coast in Louisiana and the Creoles of German Descent."

Usage, however, has limited the term principally to the descendants of French or Spanish settlers in the lower Mis- sissippi or the persons in the Saint Louis region who had as ancestors Louisiana French or Louisiana Spanish rather than Canadian French persons. See also frangais, metis, middtre, quarteron, zambo. Creole, adj. As an adjective Creole means anything produced by Creoles, anything native to the land of the Creoles. "Creole" vegetables and fruits were domestic products. Robin spoke of Creole horses (Voyages, III, 35). The adjective was applied

62 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

to blacks, as to other native growths: un negre Creole was a negro born in the colonies as distinct from one born in Africa, and in the nineteenth century it was commonly applied to a negro speaking a French dialect rather than an English. See also Surrey, Commerce of Louisiana, 272; Read, Louisiana French, 32; Littre.

crete-de-coq, n.f. The coxcomb or cockscomb. According to Baudry des Lozieres {Seconde Voyage, II, 39) this was Rhinantu^ cristagalli Didynamie angiospermine (mesidor) ; Bailey gives rattlebox as the popular name of this flower {Hortus, 523). Bezemer renders the French name by its English equivalent (Dictionary, 64) ; for cockscomb, however, Bailey gives Celosia argentea as the botanical name {Ho7'tu^, 132, 162).

crevasse, n.f. A crack in a levee. (Tixier, Travels, 69-71; Brackenridge, Views of Louisiana, 314 ff . ; Darby, Louisiana, 57, n.).

criard, crieur, n.m. A kind of curlew.

"II en est de meme [curlews] d'une autre espece que Ton appelle Frayletes, ou selons quelques-uns Gritadores ou crieurs ; lis ressemblent un peu aux vanneaux (Aves frias) . . ." (Ulloa, Memoir es Philosophiques , I, 195).

croquignole, croquecignole, n.f. Doughnut.

"Patisserie du genre beigne, que Ton fait frire dans du saindoux" (Clapin, 101). Primm said "croquecignolles were a kind of crull made of wheaten dough, sweetened, rolled out thin, cut into strips, and thrown into boiling lard in such man- ner, as that when cooked, they formed a convoluted mass" ("New Year's Day in St. Louis," 18). Cf. beigne.

culte, n.m. A creed, religion, public worship, or the church. For the relation of church and state in colonial days see Houck, Spanish Regime in Missouri, I, 114-120, 121-125.

curatelle, n.f. A partial guardianship. Consult Viollet, His- toire du Droit Civil Frangais, 514, 548-551 ; Las Siete Partidxis, 1289. Cf. tutelle.

curateur, n.m. A guardian, a curator. The curateur was ap- pointed only to assist an emancipated minor in the conduct of law cases and the examination of the accounts of the guardian-

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 63

ship (tutelle). Consult Viollet, Histoire du Droit Civil Fran- gais, 545. Cf. tuteur. See emancipation, majorite.

cypre, n.m. Cypress (Berquin-Duvallon, Vue de la Colonie, 111; Tixier, Travels, 52-53, 66).

cypres, n.m. The red cedar; the grey pine. According to Read (35) cypres is the regular Acadian word for the red cedar. In Canada, however, it is used for the grey pine, pinus bank- siana (Tache, Esquisse, sec. edit., 15).

cypriere, n.f. A cypress forest or swamp. Cortambert, at New Orleans in 1836, spoke of the "cyprieres, marecages ainsi nomme des cypres qui y croissent" {Voyage, 54). For a de- scription of a cypress forest see Tixier, Travels, 65-69, 89.

D

dalle, n.f. Trough or gorge ; narrows.

"The name is given by the Canadian voyageurs to all con- tracted running waters, hemmed in by walls of rock" (Chit- tenden and Richardson, Life and Travels of De Smet, II, 547, n. 12). "At sunset," wrote De Smet, "we were at the Dalles of the Dead [Columbia River] . Here, in 1838, twelve unfor- tunate voyageurs were swallowed up in the river. For about two miles the waters are compressed between a range of per- pendicular rocks, presenting innumerable crags, fissures and cliffs, through which the Columbia leaps with irresistible im- petuosity, forming as it dashes along frightful whirlpools, where every passing object is swallowed and disappears" (ibid., II, 547-548). "Dells," as in the Dells of the Wisconsin River, seems to be an Americanized form of dalles.

dame, n.f. Commonly to be translated "wife," but used mostly for persons of substance or position in the locality. As a courtesy title, it has the value of "Mrs." La dame Lafleur is Mrs. Lafleur; la nommee Lafleur is the woman Lafleur, the person named Lafleur. Such a distinction, however, is not found regularly adhered to. Dame is not used in its earlier aristocratic value as the title given to the wife of a seigneur. Cf. demoiselle.

danse du boeuf, n.f. The buffalo dance. The dance prepara- tory to the hunting of the buffalo was one of the chief cere-

64 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

monials of the plains Indians. For descriptions of it see Char- levoix, Letters, 209; E. James, Long's Expedition, II, 127; Hodge, Handbook, I, 382. Consult also Michelson, "The Mythi- cal Origin of the White-Buffalo Dance of the Fox Indians."

danse du calumet (de paix), n.f. Dance of the (peace) pipe. Generally a dance of peace, an adoption dance. "The one for whom the dance of the calumet was performed became there- by the adopted son of the performer" (Hodge, Handbook, I, 192). For accounts of the dance consult Charlevoix, Letters, 207-208 ; Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, I, 105 ff. ; Perrin du Lac, Voyage, 322-326; E. James, Long's Expedition, II, 123-126. For description of the calumet, its construction and function, see Hodge, Handbook, I, 191-195.

danse du carencro, n.f. Carencro dance.

Among the Creeks "the buzzard dance is said to have been a very pretty affair, the arms of the dancer being spread out and made to flap like the wings of the buzzard" (S wanton, "Religious Beliefs and Medical Practices of the Creek Indians," 534). Tixier reported a performance at the plantation of Robin de Logny (1840) : "As we were leaving the infirmary some negroes performed the Carancro dance for our enter- tainment. It is an imitation of the long walks that the sus- picious vulture takes around a dead body to assure himself that it is really deprived of life before preying upon it. A slave had painted himself and made up in order to look like a carrion crow; several other negroes accompanied with sad songs, which describe the caution of the carrion crow, the motion of the dancer around a child on the ground. The ex- pressions and the attitudes of the negro were so amusing and realistic that we applauded his talent for imitation. This man had spent many hours studying his model before imitating him in public" (Travels, 50-51). See carencro.

danse du charbon, n.f. Charcoal dance; war dance. One of the best descriptions of the war dance is that by Tixier, Trav- els, 212-215. Consult also Hodge, Handbook, II, 914-916. See pcvrtisan for other references to war customs.

danse du chevelure, n.f. Scalp dance. The scalp dance was performed by the women on the return of a successful war-

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 65

party. For accounts of it see Brackenridge, Journal, 143-145 ; E. James, Long's Expedition, II, 85-86; Tixier, Travels, 227. Many other travelers described it.

de, particle. The particle de (with its variants de la, du, des), common in the names of nobility, is not to be regarded as a patent of nobility. The presence of one of these words is, in fact, no sign of nobility whatsoever. It merely indicates the place of origin of the individual — as if one wrote today John of Chicago or John Smith of Chicago. The particle is a sign of noble rank only when it adds to the name of the individual the name of a fief, a noble property. One person who adds de to his name may be far from noble ; another whose name does not bear the particle may be of an ancient aristocratic line. (Louandre, La Noblesse Frangaise, 104-107). LeMoyne de Longueuil became a noble name when Louis XIV raised Le- Moyne's estate Longueuil to the rank of a barony. Louis Groston de St. Ange de Bellerive, which was the full name of the last French commandant in the Illinois Country, had at- tached to his original name certain district or property names, but since these were not noble properties the particle has no aristocratic significance. In names which carry the particle either the full name is used or the last name (estate name) without the particle; one writes LeMoyne de Longueuil or Longueuil, never de Longueuil. Before names beginning with a vowel or silent h, however, the particle is used: D'Hozier. Concerning the Canadian noblesse consult Munro, The Seig- norial System in Canada.

decharge, demi-charge, n.m. In the North, the lightening of canoes preparatory to the passage of the boats over the shal- low waters of the rapids. A carrying of the goods or freight in contrast to the carrying of goods and canoe at a portage (Nute, Voyageur, 39).

degrader, v. tr. To bring down, or "drop," an enemy with a gun; to distance, to leave behind (Clapin, 109-110). Also used by the voyageur to mean "being prevented from proceeding by unfavorable weather"; degrade (adj.) means "weather- bound" (Wilcocke, "Death of Frobisher," 215 and n. 1).

demi-ard, n.m. A liquid measure equal to i^ pinte (q.v.) or 1/2 chopine (q.v.) (Clapin, 112).

66 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

demi-charge. See decharge.

demi-galere, n.f. A type of military boat used on the Missis- sippi. See galere.

deml-meamelouc, n.m. A person with one-thirtysecond negro blood (Olmsted, Seahoard Slave States, 583). See meamelouc, middtre.

demoiselle (1), n.f. Daughter (Fortier, Louisiana Studies, 177; Clapin, 112; Read, 35; Dorrance, 71; Ditchy, 89). Cf. dame, fille.

demoiselle (2), n.f. Dragon-fly.

"Les Demoiselles sont en assez grand nombre ; on ne cherche point a les detruire, parce qu'elles se repaissent de marin- gouins, qui est I'espece d'Insectes la plus incommode" (Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 148).

denier, n.m. A money term equal to the twelfth part of a sol or sou (q.v.). Copper coins of 12 and 6 deniei^s (made in France) were authorized by royal edict (Louis XV) in 1716 (Zay, Hist. Monetaire des Colonies, 48-51). See livre.

depouille, n.f. Buffalo tallow ; the layer of fat under the skin along the backbone. "Buffalo tallow, called depouille by the Canadian mountaineers" (De Smet, Life and Travels, II, 564). See also Coues, Henry and Thompson Journals, I, 62. Accord- ing to Audubon and Bachman, the term was used similarly for the caribou (Quadrupeds, III, 118).

derouine, n.f. The phrase eourir la derouine or en derouine means to go to trade with the Indians on their own grounds away from the trading post. "I sent Collin & Seven men off en derouine. . . ." (McLeod, "Diary," 144). See also Malhiot, "Journal," 200 ; Coues, Henry and Thompson Journals, I, 166. The word is sometimes spelled drouine.

desert, n.m. Field; cleared land.

"Un tres-beau desert (champ) d'une cinquaintaine d'arpens, s'etendant en face de la maison, etait cintre par des bois. . . ." (Robin, Voyages, II, 346). "Les negres doivent, au lever du soleil, se rendre au champ qu'on appelle desert" {ibid.. Ill, 173). Cf. Tixier, Travels, 51.

I

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 67

deserter, v. tr. To destroy the forest; to clear land for culti- vation (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 142). Faire le desert has the same significance (Clapin, 115).

detour, n.m. A bend or turn of a river that makes almost a complete circuit.

"In the afternoon we entered upon the Great Bend, or, as the French call it, the Grand Detour, and encamped about five miles above the lower entrance. This bend is said to be twenty- one miles in circuit, and only nineteen hundred yards across at the neck" (Bradbury, Travels, 110). Cf. anse, coupe.

devant, n.m. The bow-paddler in a canoe (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 139 ; Nute, Voyageur, 26) . See gouver- nail, milieu.

diable des bois, n.m. A Canadian French name for the wolver- ine (Hodge, Handbook, I, 206). See carcajou.

dime, disme, n.f. In Canada the "tithe" was one-twentysixth, not one-tenth. During the Spanish regime in the Mississippi Valley the priests were supported by the King. See Houck, Spanish Regime, I, 121, 125.

dinde, n.m. Turkey, cock or hen (Clapin, 119).

dit,* particle. With proper names this may be translated "alias" so long as one remembers that "alias" simply means "otherwise known as" or "called" — it is best not translated at all. The custom of the double names was brought to Canada (apparently by the Normans) and by the Canadians brought into the Mississippi Valley. According to Brissaud, it origi- nated in nicknames used to disguise the army recruits {His- tory of French Public Law, 530, n. 6). The dit became, how- ever, a sort of inherited family nickname. Gilles Michel, who settled in Canada in the middle of the 17th century, was also known as Taillon; by the time his great-grandson Joseph Michel settled in Saint Louis a hundred years later the name had become established as Joseph Michel Taillon, Joseph Michel dit Taillon, or Joseph Taillon (and within another gen- eration the customary spelling was Tayon) .

The character of the dit names is worth comment. Some, as Brissaud suggests, may well have been military sobriquets : Roussel dit Sansquartier, Roussel dit Sanssoucie, Hennet dit

68 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

Sanchagrin, La Bouillerie are names that have the proper ring to them. Many other dits may have been military in origin but they seem clearly to be names earned through some per- sonal quality or habit, for they illustrate obviously a witty comment made upon an ancestor: Pepin clit Lachance, Urban Maurice dit Lafantaisie, Guitard dit Lagrandeur, Bisonet dit Bijou, Olivier dit Bellepeche, Querez dit Latulipe, Leroux dit Lajoie, Roubieu dit Europeen, Casavan dit Ladebauche, Hebert dit Lecompte, Noiset dit L'Abbe, Canac dit Marquis, Gresa dit Capitaine, Gibert dit Montaigne, Petit dit Milhomme, Thaumer dit Lasource, Couture dit Chatoyer, Benoit dit Sera- phim.

Another group of dit names apparently was drawn from place of origin: Chauvin dit Charleville, Gouin dit Cham- pagne [?], Lemoine dit Bourgignon, Payant dit St. Onge (i. e,, Saintonge), Masse dit Picard. Antoine Melloche[e?] dit Hibernois and Jean Hamilton dit I'Anglais (who in 1767 con- tracted to build a mill for Pierre Laclede at Saint Louis) are clearly enough dit names in the making. Occasionally one dit name replaces another: Langevin dit Baguette, for example, had probably a still different earlier family name, Picard dit Destroismaisons is a similar construction ; Jean Comparios dit Gascon and Kerceret dit Comparios who figure in early Saint Louis history were probably the same person. Lerouge dit Gagnon shows reversal of surname and dit.

In some instances the dit is merely a mistaken or false use : Rene Kiercereau dit Renaud, for instance; or Collet's strange listing of Alexander Laforce Papin and Pierre IMelicourt Papin as Papin dit Laforce and Papin dit Melicourt (because these men were commonly called by their middle names!). Other names mistakenly assumed to be true dits include: Laplante dit Plante, McHugh dit McGue, John Whitesides dit Juan Wed- say. The dit names were veiy common in the Illinois Country because the population was predominantly Canadian. For lists of dit names in Saint Louis consult Collet, Index to St. Louis County Archives, i-vii; in Canada, Tanguay, Dictionnaire Genealogique, I, xix-xxxii; see also Houck, History of Mis- souri, II, 244, n. 30, For discussion, consult Dauzat, Les Noms de Personnes, 165-174 ; Le jMoine, "Canadian Names and Sur-

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 69

names"; McDermott, "French Surnames in the Mississippi Valley." divorce, n.m. This was not, of course, divorce in the sense in which the term is used today, but merely separation. Like marriage, separation was a secular matter. Consult Houck, Spanish Regime, I, 119; Viollet, Histoire du Droit Civil Fran- cais, 443-452. The sample document below is from Billon, Annals of St. Louis [1764-1804], 229-230.

"In the year one thousand seven hundred and eighty-five, the seventh of the month of March, before noon, before me, Francis Cruzat, commander and lieutenant-governor of the western part of Illinois, personally appeared Joseph Verdon, an inhabitant of this post, and IMarianne Richelet his wife, who declare that after twelve years of marriage, not being able to sympathize together and wishing to put an end to their disagreements, have unanimously resolved of their own free will to contract by these presents an act of separation, hoping by this means to ensure the safety of their souls which each appears to desire, not being able to do so on account of their continual quarrels in their conjugal state; for these rea- sons they have consented, covenanted and agreed between themselves that Marianne Richelet, wife of the said Joseph Verdon, her heirs or legal representatives, shall remain in peaceable possession and hold all the goods, real and personal, which they this day own, and which they jointly acquired dur- ing their marriage ; the said Verdon being bound not to trouble her nor make any demand for a division, withdrawing only the following articles, viz.: his gun, bed, clothes, two axes, and all the implements of turner and cabinet maker, these being indispensably necessary to him. And the said IMarianne Richelet binds herself from this day to pay all the debts they may have contracted while living together, and should there be any hereafter unknown to her, they will be on account of the said Verdon individually. Each renouncing all the rights and goods which may accrue to them individually, they cannot compel each the other to furnish any pecuniary assistance for the future, and as the said Richelet by these presents finds her- self in possession of all the property, the said Verdon will be

70 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

entirely released, and without being held to any examination, from the dower which he acknowledged in the marriage by and before Don Balthazar de Villiers, commander at the time at Pointe Coupee.

"As regards the children, the issue of said marriage, they being four in number, two male and two female, the parties have agreed that they shall remain under the care and charge of the said Richelet, their mother, who binds herself to take charge of them, and raise them in honor and in the fear of God.

"Thus it has been covenanted and agreed in the govern- ment hall in St. Louis, in Illinois, the same day and year as above, in presence of Mariano Izaguire and Josef Bermeo, attending witnesses, the parties declaring they knew not how to write.

her his

"Marianne x Richelet, Joseph x Verdon, Josef Bermeo

mark. mark.

"Mariano Izaguire. Francisco Cruzat."

donation, n.f. Deed of gift. For the law governing donations consult Viollet, Histoire du Droit Civil Frangais, 884-887 ; Las Siete Partidas, 739, 1022-1026 ; Coutumes de Paris, II, 18-59.

dos gris, n.m. The redheaded duck (Audubon, Ornithological Biographij, IV, 198).

drigail, n.m. Equipment or baggage of any sort (Chamber- lain, "The Life and Growth of Words," 136 ; Tache, Forestiers et Voyageurs, 210; Clapin, 123). According to Read (36) the word is pronounced as if written drigaille. See agres, butin.

drouine. See derouine.

Eau Post. A short and familiar form of Au poste des Arkansas used by Thomas James (Three Years Among the Indians, 98, and passim) . Cf. Oposte.

eboulement, n.m. The falling-in of river banks.

"Encamped at the falling in banks, or grand eboulment. . . . In nearly all the bends there are a great many fallen trees, the banks being acted upon by the current, appears to have

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 71

fallen in with every thing growing upon it" (Brackenridge, Journal, 75). Cf. emharras.

ecarir, v. tr. To square; to cut posts square (Clapin, 127).

ecor. See ecore.

ecorce, n.f. Bark canoe (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 139). See canot.

ecore, n. A river bluff. E.g. : Ecore a Margot, tcore de Prud- homme. Sometimes written ecor. From Standard French accore (adj.). See Thomassy, Geologic Pratique de la Louisi- ane, 233 ; Ditchy, 96.

ecrivain, n.m. A scrivener; a public "writer." In the Illinois Country the term was generally applied to the clerk or secre- tary of the Lieutenant-Governor. It is not the equivalent of notaire (q.v.) either in the requirements of education or in function.

ecu, ecu blanc, n.m. The silver ecu was a coin of three livres, or sixty sous. See livre.

ecuyer, n.m. Like its English counterpart esquire (now weak- ened in its free application to any educated person in the pro- fessions or in a superior position in business), this word was formerly added to the name of a person without title who was without question a member of the gentry, the petty nobil- ity. In documents in the Mississippi Valley in the eighteenth century it was consistently used in its proper early sense. Con- sult Suite, Histoire des Canadiens-Frangais, V, 104.

efardocher, v. tr. To clear away undergrowth (Clapin, 130). Cf. effredoche, ferdoches.

effredoche, n.m. Cleared land (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 142). Cf. efardocher, ferdoches.

egrette folle, n.f. The Louisiana heron — so called, according to Audubon, because of "apparent insensibility to danger" (Ornithological Biography, III, 137).

emancipation, n.f. The right given to a minor to conduct his own affairs. Emanciper un mineur: to put outside the tutelle, to release from the power of parent or guardian. Cf. Viollet, Histoire du Droit Civil Frangais, 516-530. See curateur, majorite, tnineur, tutelle, tuteur.

72 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

embarras, n.m. Obstruction in the river. Equivalent Ameri- can usage: "raft."

"By the way, what we call emharras is a mass of floating trees which the river has uprooted and which the current drags onward continually. If these be stopped by a tree that is rooted in the ground, or by a tongue of land, the trees become heaped upon one another, and form enormous piles; some are found that would furnish your good city of Tours with wood for three winters. These spots are difficult and dangerous to pass. It is necessary to sail very close to the embarras. . . ." (Poisson [1727] Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXVII, 289). "This word requires some explanation. Independently of the current of that vast volume of water rolling with great im- petuosity, the navigation is obstructed by various other im- pediments. At the distance of every mile or two, and frequently at smaller intervals, there are emharras, or rafts, formed by the collection of trees closely matted, and extending from twenty to thirty yards. The current vexed by interruptions, rushes round them with great violence and force" (Bracken- ridge [1811], Journal, 37-38). See also Bradbury, Travels, 57. Clapin (133) gives a parallel Canadian use for the term in the forests.

embouchure, n.f. Pass, mouth. This teiTn is used of a pass in the mountains as well as for the "mouth" of a river; e. g., see Abert, "Report," 440.

emerillon, n.m. Sparrow hawk (Read, 36). See mangeur de Tpoulet.

encan, n.m. A public sale, particularly one ordered by the court for the settlement of an estate or the payment of debts, etc. E. g., "Encan ou vente judiciere des Effets de deffunt Louis Lambert, 11 aoust 1772" (Fr. and Span. Arch. St. L., No. 2547) . See also Dart and Porteous, "A Judicial Auction in New Orleans, 1772."

endossement, n.m. In the common-fields, the strip left to show boundary. ". . . the several narrow slips, left uncultivated between each of the fields . . . which the French call endosse- ment . . ." {Hunt's Minutes, II, 104).

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 73

enfant de diable, n.m. The skunk (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 86; Clapin, 137). See bete puante.

enfarger, enferger, v.tr. To hobble.

Clapin (137) says that "En France enfarger signifie sur- tout: mettre des entraves a un cheval." De Smet noted in the Northwest that "To prevent all accident, they [the horses] are hobbled — enfarge, as the Canadian voyagers say — that is, the two fore-legs are tied together so as to prevent their straying too far from camp" {Life and Travels, II, 619). See also Tixier, Travels, 114, 159.

engage, n.m. Any employee in the fur trade. Not, however, including the commis (q.v.) who, though "employed," enjoyed the status of the bourgeois. See voyageur.

engagement, n.m. The contract between an engage and his employer.

epinette, n.f. The tamarack or black larch tree.

". . . epinette of the French voyageurs, the name of the tree we commonly call tamarac or hackmetack, and which the botan- ists know as black larch, Larix americanu" (Coues, Pike's Ex- peditions, I, 319, n. 20).

epinette a la biere. See epinette noire.

epinette blanche, n.f. The white or single spruce (Michaux, Sijlva, III, 105) .

epinette noire, n.f. The black or double spruce (Tache, Es- quisse, 15; Michaux, Sylva, III, 101). Also known as epinette a la biere.

epinette rouge, n.f. The American larch or tamarack (Tache, Esqiiisse, 15; Michaux, Sylva, III, 121).

epinettiere, n.f. A grove or forest of tamarack, spruce, or fir trees.

epluchette, n.f. Cornhusking (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 137; Clapin, 140).

eprevier, n.m. The sparrow hawk (Read, 37). A variant of epervier. See mangeur de poidet.

equeurri, adj. Well-made; solidly built (Clapin, 141). Cf. ecarir.

equiere, n.f. A balustrade (Alvord, Cahokia Records, 284-285).

74 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

erable a giguieres, n.m. The box elder or ash-leaved maple (Michaux, Sylva, I, 115).

erabliere, n.f. A forest of maples; a sugar maple grove; an establishment for making maple sugar. See Clapin, 142; Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 137.

escalin, n.m. A silver coin eight of which equaled one piastre (q.v.). The American "bit." Now used among Missouri French and in Louisiana only in the expression deux escalins and six escalins, two bits and six bits (Dorrance, 73; Read, 140). In common use during the colonial times. Alvord, {Cahokia Records, 176, n. 1) mistakenly gives its value as that of the English shilling; this arises from the origin of the French word in the Dutch schelling and its relation to English shilling. See liv7^e.

escalin platllle, n.m. Same value as escalin. The meaning of platille is not clear. It may be a French version of Spanish platillo, derived from plata, and therefore used for escalins in coin.

escuyer. See ecuyer.

esquipomgnole, n. Another name for kinikinik, (q.v.) (Bart- lett. Dictionary of Americanisms, 202).

estomac, n.m. The breasts, the chest. Also that part of the clothing over the chest (Clapin, 145).

etablissement, n.m. A settlement.

"L'etablissement Frangaise des Natchez devient consider- able" (Poisson [Arkansas, 1727], Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXVII, 310) . "On appelle etablissement un canton oil il y a plusieurs habitations peu eloignees les unes des autres, qui font une espece de village" (ibid., 282).

etofFe du pays, n.f. Homespun ; coarse woolen cloth. The term was also applied at times to moonshine, home-distilled white whiskey (Clapin, 146).

etrennes, n.f. pi. New Year's gifts. See Primm, "New Year's Day in the Olden Time of St. Louis," 18.

etuy, n.m. Variant spelling of etui: case.

eveque, n.m. The indigo bird or indigo bunting (Read, 56). See papebleu.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 75

fabrique, n.f. The vestry board in the Catholic Church. The body of laymen (generally two?), elected annually by the con- gregation; its duty was the care of the temporal properties of the church. The term was also used at times to include those properties themselves and the parish funds (Houck, Spanish Regime, 1, 116). For the functioning of such a board see Garraghan, Saint Ferdinand de Florissant, 142-154. (Gar- raghan there makes the mistake of translating ancien as senior, as applied to the wardens, when apparently he is referring to former wardens). Consult also Rothensteiner, History of the Archdiocese of St. Louis, I, 247-251. See marguiller.

faon, n.m. A bag or sack made of fawn (calf) or doe skin, used for storing meat, etc. See Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, I, 207; II, 88-89; Tixier, Travels, 196; Wisconsin Historical Collections, XX, 406 and n. 33 ; Bartram, Voyage, I, 416. Cf. taureaii.

fardoches. See ferdoches.

farine froide, n.f. Corn meal as made by the Indians (Charle- voix, Letters, 238; Robin, Voyages, III, 41).

fausse riviere, n.f. An old channel of a river, now blocked on one end and forming a kind of long lake (Flint, Geography and History of the Mississippi Valley, I, 154). Cf. bayou, marais.

faux-maitre, n.m. In the bark canoe this is a "strip along the edge to protect the bark" (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 139).

ferdoches, n.f. pi. Brush, brushwood (Chamberlain, "The Life and Growth of Words," 142; Clapin, 152). Read (39) gives the Louisiana French form of this word as fordoches. Dorrance (75) and Ditchy (107) give fardoches as a variant spelling.

fesse de chevreuil, n.f. A haunch of venison.

festin, n.m. A feast or jollification (Chamberlain, "Life and

Growth of Words," 139; Brackenridge, Journal of a Voyage,

32-33). See festiner. Cf. chaudiere Jiaute.

76 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

festiner, v. intr. To feast.

"Deux fois I'annee ils I'invoquent en se festinant et en dans- ant. . . ." For festinant Perrin du Lac gives this note : "Terme propre au pays, et le seul qui rende litteralement I'expression qu'emploient les Sauvages." (Voyage, 17S; cf. ibid., 2^5) . Al- though Perrin du Lac was here talking about a reUgious festi- val, the term was frequently used for any occasion of special note.

feu des vieillards, n.m. The fire of the old men; the lodge of council. See loge des vieillards.

feve, n.f. Bean. The Riviere a feves in Wisconsin — which, of course, was the Bea7i (or Locust) River — became for the Amer- icans Fever River.

fevier, n.m. The false or black acacia or yellow locust. Michaux {Journal, 124) described it as "Robinia pseudo acacia (par les francais fevier) ." Consult Bailey, Hortus, 531.

(gros) fevier, n.m. The Kentucky coffee tree.

"le Guilandina dioica [est nomme] Gros fevier" (Michaux, Journal, 124). Bailey {Hortus, 291) gives the botanical name as Gymnocladus dioica. See chicot (2).

fevier epineux, n.m. The honey or sweet locust.

"Le Gl[editsia] triacanthos est nomme fev[ier] epineux" (Michaux, Journal, 124). Consult Michaux, Sylva, II, 78; Bailey, Hortus, 278. See bois d'amourette.

fil d'epinette, n.m. Spinet string.

filet, n.m. The ration of liquor allowed engages.

"La voix du patron anime alors de plus en plus les rameurs, et il n'a pas oublie auparavant de leur distribuer le fiUt; c'est la mesure ordinaire de tafia" (Robin, Voyages, II, 214). Robin said that such an allowance was issued three times a day {ibid., 217). In the instructions given by Ulloa to Captain Rui, in command of an expedition to build a fort near the mouth of the Missouri River in 1767, item 10 reads: "Since the serving of rations of brandy to the soldiers and sailors both on voyages and when halting, and which the French call 'File' is an abuse, and from it results intoxication and dis- order, that liquor shall not be taken or included among the rations. . . ." (Houck, Spanish Regime, I, 3).

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 77

filet, a boire le — . According to Alvord, this is a Canadian and Mississippi Valley expression meaning to drink from a faucet or bung hole (Cahokia Records, 418, n. 1).

filet, fillet, n.m. The head strap worn by voyageurs to support the pack during a portage.

fiUe, n.f. Servant (Fortier, Louisiana Studies, 177; Clapin, 155). Cf. demoiselle (1).

fiole, n.f. Flask ; bottle.

fleunen, n.m. Audubon gave petit flamen as one Louisiana name for the white ibis {Ornithological Biography, III, 178). See bee croche.

flammette petite douve, n.f. A Louisiana name for the butter- cup or crowfoot shrub (Robin, Voyages, III, 463; Bailey, Hortus, 518).

fleche, n.f. An arrow stone (Flint, Geography and History of the Mississippi Valley, I, 32; II, 83).

flute, n.f. In Canada, the wood thrush (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 85).

foUe avoine, n.f. Wild rice (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 136; Ditchy, 111). Folles avoines was also the French name for the Menominee Indians.

fonds, n.m. pi. "The forest-lands from which the settlers ob- tain their wood" (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 142).

fontaine, n.f. Spring. Fontaine a Laclede, Fontaine a Biche: LaClede's Spring, Deer Spring.

fordoches. See ferdoches.

fouet de cocher, n.m. The coachwhip snake (Bartram, Voy- age, I, 374). Read (39) gives fouetteur as the Louisiana name for this snake.

fouine, n.f. The Louisiana weasel (Read, 39). See foutreau.

fourche, n.f. Fork (of a river), creek. Fourche a Courtois, Fourche a Renaidt: Courtois' Fork, Renault's Fork.

fourtreau, n.m. The mink (J. Long, Voyages and Travels, 258). See belette.

foutreau, n.m. The weasel (Dorrance, 76). See fouine.

aata^aaBaamamsumaiBiaaasmm

78 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

Frangals, n.m. Used in the Missouri River country and on the Great Plains (at least during the first half of the nineteenth century) for a Frenchman of the Illinois Country, of Saint Louis, etc. — i. e., a Frenchman born in America. So used by the Indians. Creole generally signified a Frenchman of Louisi- ana origin or ancestry; Canadien, a Frenchman of Canadian origin; Francais, a Frenchman born in the western United States.

Frangais de France, n.m. A European Frenchman.

frappe d'abord, n.m. The deer jfly. The term, Read says (39), was carried to Louisiana by the Acadians. Le Page du Pratz, however, recorded the insect by this name in the 1730's {His- toire, II, 146). Tixier described this insect as a "certain gray species, quite large in size, called Frappe d'abord, for as soon as it has alighted on the skin it bites immediately" {Travels, 257). In De Smet's Life and Travels (IV, 1392) the insects are called "Frappe d'abord or buffalo gnats." See also brulot.

f rapper au poteau (1), v.tr. To strike the post, to recite one's deeds of valor.

"In the intervals of the dances, a warrior would step for- ward and strike a flagstaff they had erected with a stick, whip, or other weapon, and recount his martial deeds. This cere- mony is called striking the post, and whatever is then said may be relied upon as rigid truth, being delivered in the pres- ence of many a jealous warrior and witness, who could easily detect and would immediately disgrace the striker for exag- geration or falsehood" (E. James, Long's Expedition, I, 231). For further descriptions see Bossu, Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes Occidentales, I, 83 and n. ; Perrin du Lac, Voyage, 301 ; E. James, Long's Expedition, I, 231-234, 262-263 ; II, 82, 125 ; Tixier, Travels, 211-212; Ruxton, In the Old West, 76.

frapper au poteau (2), v.tr. To have sexual intercourse (?). "My kindly friend asked me if I had frappe au poteau, that is, if I had had relations with an Osage woman" (Tixier, Travels, 258). Can there be an extension here of the meaning of frapper au poteau previously explained — i. e., boasting of sexual prowess? Maximilian described a custom among the Mandans that may explain the phrase used by Tixier's Osage

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 79

friend: "A chief business of the young men among these In- dian tribes is to try their fortune with the young maidens and women. . . . They have a singular mode of displaying their achievements in this field, especially when they visit the women in their best dresses. On these occasions they endeavor to gain credit by the variety of their triumphs, and mark the number of conquered beauties by bundles of peeled osier twigs, painted red at the tips. These sticks are of two kinds. Most of them are from two to three feet in length, others five or six feet. The latter, being carried singly, are painted with white and red rings alternately, which indicates the number of conquests. The shorter sticks are only painted red at the tips, and every stick indicates an exploit, the number of which is usually bound up into a pretty large bundle. Thick fasces of this kind are carried about by the dandies in their gallant excursions. Among the Mandans these sticks are generally quite plain; among the Minitaries, on the contrary, there is, usually, in the middle of the bundle, one larger stick, at the end of which is a tuft of black feathers. These feathers indicate the favorite, and the dandies tell everybody that she is the person for whom this honor is intended" (Travels, II, 282-283).

frene gras, n.m. The black ash (Tache, Esquisse, sec. edit., 16).

fuzee. Variant spelling of fusil: flintlock musket.

gaie-anneur. See gidgnoleur.

galere, n.f . Galley. This was the name generally used for the largest class of war vessels on the Mississippi in the eighteenth century; such a boat carried fifty or more armed men and apparently mounted cannon. The term was never used for private or commercial boats.

galerie, n.f. A covered gallery, balcony, or porch which on the houses of the well-to-do in the French colonies often ran about the four sides, both on the first and second floors. The style was derived from the West Indies.

galet, n.m. Coues interprets galet as meaning "boulder" (Henry and Thompson Jownals, I, 30). Gates declares that "in the

80 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

Northwest [galet] usually meant a gravel bank" (Five Fur Traders of the Northivest, 250, n. 4). Clapin does not list the word; Standard French means "pebble" or "gravel."

galette, n.f. A kind of bread.

Kennicott stated that "Galette is the only form of bread used on a voyage. ... It is made in a very simple style: the flour bag is opened, and a small hollow made in the flour, into which a little water is poured, and the dough is thus mixed in the bag; nothing is added, except, perhaps a little dirt from the cook's univashed hands, with which he kneads it into flat cakes, which are baked before the fire in a frying pan, or cooked in grease" (quoted in Nute, Voyageur, 53).

galiote, galliot, n.f. A galley. Galiote and galere (q.v.) appar- ently were interchangeable terms for a class of war vessels used on the Mississippi.

gargon, gargon majeur, n.m. A bachelor, an "emancipated" male, a man of legal age. See emancipation, majorite.

garde-magasin, n.m. A storekeeper, but only of military stores or public supplies.

garde soleil, n.m. A Louisiana name for the American bittern ; also known as the Indian pullet or Indian hen (Audubon, Ornithological Biography, IV, 296).

garzette, n.f. A Louisiana name for the white heron (Ulloa, Memoires Philosophiques, I, 192-193). Read (1, 45) gives aigrette caille and heron dos-blanc for this bird.

gave, n.m. An underground stream (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 141).

gens de couleur, n.m. pi. People of color. Term for persons of mixed blood of which some part was negro. Generally ap- plied to free people rather than to slaves. For list of terms describing such mixtures see muldtre.

gens-Iibres, n.m. pi. The white and Indian halfbreeds of the North and Canada. See homme-libre, metis.

giraumont, n.m. The cushaw or crookneck squash.

". . . ils plantent surtout cette immense quantite de citrouilles ou potirons qu'ils nomment giraumonts" (Robin, Voyages, III, 42). Although in Louisiana French giraumont is used for

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 81

"pumpkin" as well as for the cushaw, Robin's combination with 'potiron apparently singles this fruit out as the cushaw. Le Page du Pratz (Histoire, II, 11) said that giromons were of two sorts: "les uns sont ronds, les autres en forme de corps de chasse." See also Read, 89-90.

glaise, n.f. Clay (for pottery) ; lick. La Grande Glaise: the Big Lick.

"The soil around consisted of a white tenacious clay, prob- ably fit for Potter's ware: hence the name 'Glaise' which the french hunters have bestowed upon most of the licks which are frequented by the beasts of the forest, altho' salt is not always to be found in such places so as to merit attention" (Dunbar, Life, Letters, and Papers [Washita River, 1804], 269) . Dunbar wrote also of "licks, which are sometimes termed 'saline' sometimes 'glaise'" (ibid., 242). Thomassy likewise noted "terres salees nommees glaizes par les anciens Creoles et licks par les Americains" (Geologie Pratique de la Louisiane, 244). See saline.

gombo (1), Afr., n.m. The French dialect of the Louisiana negroes: see congo (2), negre.

gombo (2) , Afr., n.m. Gumbo or okra ; a favorite dish of which okra is a principal ingredient (Ditchy, 122 ; Read, 122) .

gombo (3), Afr., n.m. A thick, heavy soil (Read, 122).

goudron (eau de — ), n.m. Tar water. A favorite medical remedy in the eighteenth century. See George Berkeley, Siris: A CJiain of Philosophical Reflexions and Inquiries concerning the Vi7^tues of Tar Water ... (in Works of George Berkeley, G. Sampson, ed.. III).

gouffre, n.m. "In the pine barrens of Florida, Alabama and Mississippi, is found an animal, apparently of the tortoise class, commonly called the gouffre. It has a large and thick shell, and burrows to a great depth in the ground. It is of prodigious power and strength, and resembles in many re- spects the loggerhead turtle" (Flint, Geography and History of the Mississippi Valley, I, 120).

gourde, n.f. A West Indian coin equal to five livres or one dollar; also known as piastre gourde. Read (41) says the use

82 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

of the gourde as a coin was brought to Louisiana by refugees from Haiti ; he cites also a story from John W, Vandercook's Black Majesty which imphes that the gourde became a symbol of currency in Haiti in 1806. In Saint Louis, however, the term was in use at least ten years before Christophe came to power, for on 20 September 1796 an inventory was made of the estate of Louis Dubreuil and under the heading of "Argent en espece" was listed "2000 gourdes Entre les mains de M. Sarpy a la Nouvelle Orleans faisant dix Mille livres" (Fr. and Span. Arch. St. L., No. 2457). For the circulation of the gourde in the French West Indies in the first years of the nineteenth century, consult Zay, Histoire Monetaire des Colon- ies Frangaises, 194-199, 211-212, 217-222, 226. The term con- tinued to be used for dollar, after the disappearance of the French unit, until the middle, at least, of the nineteenth cen- tury; see Stewart, Altowan, I, 69.

gourgane, n.f. The bean of the gros fevier or guilundina dioica was called gourgane by the Illinois French, according to Michaux (Journal, 124).

gouvemail, n.m. The steersman of a canoe (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 139; Nute, Voyageur, 26). See devant, milieu.

grain de boeuf, n.m. The buffalo berry (Fremont, Report of Exploring Expedition, 51). But see graisse de boeuf.

graine-de-Ioup, n.f. The wolf berry (Tache, Esquisse, sec. edit., 17).

graine d'hiver, n.f. The snowberry (Tache, Esquisse, sec. edit., 17).

graine d'ours, n.f. The bearberry (Keith, "Letters to Roderic McKenzie," 102). See sacacomi.

graisse, n.f. Tallow, fat. Commonly, bear's fat.

graisse de boeuf, n.f. The buffalo berry or rabbit berry.

"There is a shrub which the French call graisse de boeuf, bearing a red berry, of a pungent taste; its leaves, though smaller and more delicate, bear a resemblance to those of the pear tree" (Brackenridge, Joiuyial, 87). "Great qualities of a small red acid fruit [Shepherdia argentea] , known among the

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 83

Indians by a name signifying rabbit-berries, and called by the French graisse de buffle or buffalo-fat" (Coues, Expedition of Lewis and Clark, I, 176). See also Nuttall, S^jlva, I, 120; Tabeau, Narrative, 96-97; Dr. Abel's note 12 (p. 96) cites a number of references concerning this shrub and its fruit.

grand-bois, n.m. Virgin forest (Ditchy, 124). Cf. bois-debout.

grand carre, n.m. According to Alvord this was the designa- tion for the common-field {Illinois Country, 207). See also champ quarre.

grand quarre. Variant of grand carre (q.v.).

grandVue, n.f. A "wide expanse in a river" (Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 140).

grange, n.f. A barn. Not to be confused with English usage (farm or farmstead). Rue des granges in early Saint Louis (the third street) was the street on which "barn lots" were located. The term grange was also applied to barn-shaped bluffs; e. g.. La Grange (Red Wing Village), 667 miles above Saint Louis at the head of Lake Pepin.

grassel. See grasset.

grasset, n.m. The towhee bunting or chewink (Audubon, Ornithological Biography, I, 151). Read (43) gives grassel as a variant.

gravois, n.m. pi. Gravel.

gref, n.m. The office of the clerk of the court; depository of notarial records. Ati Gref de ce Siege: at the office of this court (Cahokia Records, 474-475).

greffier, n.m. Recorder or clerk of the court.

gres, n.m. Sandstone. Cap-o-gris (correctly: Cap-au-gres) is Sandstone Cape or Bluff.

griffe, n.f. A griffin. A mixed blood — the child of a mulatto and a negro (Read, 44). See muldtre. Sometimes applied to the child of a negro and an Indian — see sambo.

grive, n.m. In Louisiana grive (Standard French for "thrush") is the American robin (Read, 90).

gros-bec, n.m. The night heron; also known as the Indian pullet, Indian hen, or qua bird (Audubon, Ornithological Biog- raphy, III, 275).

84 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

grosse-corne, n.f. The bighorn or Rocky Mountain sheep. Ac- cording to Bradbury its horns were used by the Indians for bows (Travels, 170, n.). For a description of the bighorn see Maximilian, Travels, II, 67-69.

gru, n.m. Hominy.

"The most ordinary food of this country [lower Mississippi River] — almost the only one for many people, and especially for travelers — is gru. Corn is pounded, in order to remove the outer skin, and then is boiled a long time in water, but the Frenchmen sometimes season it with oil; and this is gru. The Savages, pounding the corn very fine, sometimes cook it with tallow, and more often only with water ; this is sagamite [q.v.l. However, the gru answers for bread; a spoonful of gi-u and a mouthful of meat go together" (Poisson [Arkansas, 1727], Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, LXVII, 291- 293). According to Perrin du Lac the typical voyageur's meal consisted of "un morceau de lard et du mais lessive, qu'ils appellent gru" (167). See also Robin, Voyages, II, 217.

guignolee,* n.f. A New Year's Eve festival traditional in Canada and the Illinois Country, the origin of which remains unknown. Parallel customs are cited in Saintonge and Perche. Efforts have been made to trace the festival back to Druid custom, but no explanation carries any certainty. The word is found in various forms : ignolee, aguilanieu, guillannee, gui- I'an-neu, avilonneau, gui-Van-neou.

In Canada a band of persons went around on the night of December 31st to wish friends and acquaintances a Happy New Year and to make a collection for the poor — the singing of the guignolee song being the principal part of the per- formance. According to Primm, however, in Saint Louis the object of running the guignolee was to collect supplies for the first of the hals des rois to be given on Twelfth Night. The singers were in masquerade costume and each carried a bucket, basket or sack. On entering a house they sang the song, re- ceived their contributions, danced the "rag dance" {la gue- nille) , and then left, singing the departing chorus. Mrs. Schaaf (from guignol meaning "clown" [puppet?]) interprets la guignolee as being a band of clowns or revellers. She gives

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 85

the order of procedure as follows : the guignoleurs sing in the street and, on knocking at the door, are admitted singing and marching around their leaders and fiddlers (all are masked and supposedly unknown) ; they sing the greeting verse, then the request verse ; the daughters of the house are called forth, the leaders dance with them and sing a love song to the girls ; next, they do the "rag" dance ; then they sing their thanks to the master of the house and depart with their load, singing "Bonsoir."

The music of the guignoUe was traditional; Gagnon gives several versions of it. Canadian versions of the words will be found in Gagnon, 200-201, 207-208, 209-210. In the Missis- sippi Valley two slightly different sets of words have been pre- served: by Wilson Primm of Saint Louis (15-16) and by Gus- tave St. Gemme of Sainte Genevieve. The latter version, a fuller set printed first in the History of Southeast Missouri, was reprinted by Mrs. Schaaf . Consult Clapin, 176-177 ; Dor- rance, 80-81 ; Gagnon, Chansons Populaires du Cmmda, 198- 210; Primm, "New Year's Day in the Olden Time of St. Louis," 14-16; Schaaf, "The Passing of an Old Custom — La Guignolee" ; Tache, Forestiers et Voyageurs, 11 ; Carriere, Tales from the French Folk-Lore of Missouri, 6-7.

guignolee, courir la — . To go out singing with the guignolee party.

guignoleur, guignoleux, n.m. One who goes singing the guignolee. Dorrance (81) adds for the Missouri-French to- day: gaie-anneur, guionneur.

gui-1'an-neou. See guignolee. gui-I'an-neu. See guignolee. guillannee. See guignolee.

guilledive, n.f. Rum (Bossu, Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes Oc-

cidentales, II, 122). guionneur. See guignoleur.

86 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

H

habitan, habitant, n.m. A farmer. Seldom to be translated "inhabitant."

"Canadian Habitant, or countryman" (Lambert, Travels, I, 159). "Les habitans & negocians des Illinois . . ." ("Memoire Des Habitans & Negocians de la Louisiane, sur I'Evene- ment du 29 Octobre 1786 A L'Univers" in Champigny, La Louisiane Ensanglantee, 7). "The settlers of La Fourche, are chiefly what the French call petits habitants, small planters" (Brackenridge, Vieivs, 302). Examples of usage could be greatly multiplied. The word came into use originally to dis- tinguish those who settled on the soil from the soldiers, mer- chants, and artisans. But habitant always meant the man who owned as well as worked the farm. See Clapin, 178 ; Gag- non. Chansons Populaires du Canada, 225. See habitation, journalier. See militia rolls for Saint Louis (1780) where among the occupations listed (trader, mason, carpenter, cur- rier, rower, blacksmith, etc.) appear many habitants (Houck, Spanish Regime, I, 184-189).

habitation, n.f. A farm, including farmhouse and other build- ings.

"A smaller portion of land [than a concession (q-v.)] granted by the company is called a 'habitation.' A man with his wife or partner clears a little ground, builds himself a house on four piles, covers it with sheets of bark, and plants corn and rice for his provisions; the next year he raises a little more for food, and has also a field of tobacco; if at last he succeeds in having three or four Negroes, then he is out of his difficulties. This is what is called a habitation, sl habitant." (Poisson [Arkansas, 1727], Jesuit Relations and Allied Docu- ments, hXVlll, 2SS) . See habitant.

herbe a bouton, n.f. Horsemint (Robin, Voyages, III, 388; Bailey, Hortus, 400).

herbe a la houate [.sicl, n.f. A species of asclepias, milkweed, silkweed (Robin, Voyages, III, 413-414). See houatte, vache a lait.

herbe a la puce, n.f. Poison oak, poison ivy, trumpet flower. According to De Smet herbe a la piice is "the Rhus Toxi-

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 87

codendron of the botanists" (Life and Travels, II, 792). Tixier saw it on the younger trees "opening its red bell-flowers" (Travels, 73). But these illustrate two different uses for the name: De Smet's is Canadian (poison oak) ; Tixier's is Louisi- ana (trumpet flower). Read (45) indicates, however, that the more common Louisiana use of the phrase is for poison ivy (toxicodendron radicans L.). Robin used herhe a puce for the bignonia (Voyages, III, 406-407).

herbe a malo, n.f. The water plantain (Robin, Voyages, III, 340).

herbe a quatre feuilles, n.f. The common speedwell, or Cul- ver's root.

"Veronica virginica called by the French herbe a quatre feuilles (four-leaved grass) is often added [to the Racine a Becquet as medicine] .... Confirmed once more in my opinion that the root of Veronica virginica, vulgarly known as Herbe a quatre feuilles (four-leaved grass), used as a decoction for a month, is effective for the cure of venereal Diseases. Four or five of the roots are boiled. As this beverage is purgative the strength of this Ptisan must be increased or reduced by put- ting [in] more or less according to the effect it has on one. It is sufficient for the first days that the bowels be relaxed and looser than usual ; it is not unusual that the bowels be moved 3 or 4 times the first day" (Michaux, Travels, 77-19). See 7'acine a becquet. Consult Bailey, Hortus, 684.

herbe a serpent a sonnettes, n.f. Snakeroot; Read (45) sug- gests the Indian or false mallow.

Travelers frequently noted among Indians the use of roots in the treatment of snake bite, but their descriptions are so general that the plants cannot be identified. Consult Mar- quette, "Premier Voyage," 100-101 ; Le Page du Pratz, His- toire, II, 60-61 ; Coues, ed., Expedition of Lewis and Clark, I, 238; Tixier, Travels, 58-59; Tabeau, Narrative, 80-81 and Dr. Abel's note 24. Swanton discussed Sampson snakeroot (Source Materials for the Choctaw, 237). See also bois blanc.

herbe a trois quarts, n.f. Verbesina; the small white or Vir- ginia crown-beard (Robin, Voyages, III, 443; Read, 45).

88 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

herbe sainte, n.f. Artemisia, sagebrush.

J. J. Audubon at Fort Union, 18 June 1843, recorded "a prairie covered with large bushes of artemisia (called here 'Herbe Sainte')" (Audubon-Coues, Audubon and His Journals, 11,39). See absinthe.

hivemant, n.m. Any person in the fur trade {bourgeois or engage) who stayed at the trading post throughout the winter. It was originally applied to the employees of the French trad- ing companies who spent the winter in Canada (Clapin, 181). Cf. habitant.

hivemer, v. intr. To winter. To remain at a trading post throughout the winter in place of returning to the settlements.

homme-libre, n.m. The term was first applied to the Canadian- French trapper or voyageur who married an Indian woman and took to the free life of the woods or plains. The descen- dants of the hommes-libres are the metis or bois-brules (q.v.). See Clapin, 181.

honnete homme, n.m. An honorific (without legal distinction) applied only to persons of assured bourgeois rank, not to the lower class. Suite declared it the equivalent of "respectable" (Histoire des Canadiens-Frangais, V, 104). See honorable homme.

honorable homme, n.m. An honorific (without legal distinc- tion) indicating excellent bourgeois standing somewhat less than that indicated by the noble homme {q.v.) and superior to that shown by honnete homme {q.v.). "Est une qualite que prennent dans les actes publics, ceux qui ne sont pas nobles, & qui sont pourtant d'une condition honneste" {Dictionnaire de VAcademie Frangoise, 1694). See also Suite, Histoire des Canadiens-Frangais , V, 104.

houatte, n.f. Bitter dogsbane {apocynum) , milkweed, snake's milk, bitterroot (Rafinesque, Medical Flora, I, 49, 262). See herbe a la houate, vache a lait.

huile d'ours, n.f. Bear oil (bear's grease), a favorite ingredi- ent in French frontier cooking.

"The hunters count much of their profits from oil drawn from the Bear's fat, which at New-Orleans is always of ready sale, and is much esteemed for its wholesomeness in cooking,

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 89

being preferred to butter and hog's lard; it is found to keep longer than any other of the same nature, without turning rancid: they have a method of boiling it from time to time upon sweet-bay leaves which restores it or facilitates its pres- ervation" (Dunbar, Life, Letters, and Papers [Washita, 1804], 244).

huissier, n.m. Sheriff's officer, marshall of the court.

Alvord said that "the duties of the huissier were not different from those of the sheriff" ; i. e., executing of judgments, serv- ing of writs, etc. (Cahokia Records, 111, n. 3).

hypotheque, n.f. A mortgage. For laws governing mortgages consult Viollet, Histoire du Droit Civil Frangais, 731-748.

I

ignolee. See guignolee.

ignoleur. See guignoleur.

lie, n.f. ; ilet, ilot, n.m. ; isle, Islette, n.f. A city square or block ;

a grove of trees on the open prairie or along a river bank.

Robin noted that in New Orleans "on reserva pour la place d'armes un ilot entier" (Voyages, II, 73). Sir Wm. D. Stewart wrote that the father of one of his hunting companions in the 1830's lived in "an old wooden house on a square plot, call[ed] in St. Louis an island, that is, a square piece surrounded by streets" (Edtvard Warren, 482, n.). "Lesquels Batimens . . . Sont Batis sur une isle de trois cents pieds quarre de terrain" (LaClede Papers, Missouri Historical Society).

Read (46) says that this term originated in New Orleans because the squares there were once surrounded by drainage ditches which, filled with water, created "little islands." It is not likely, however, that the use of the word had such a literal origin. Cf. Cable, who said that the Acadians on the Louisiana prairies called their homestead groves ties {Bo7iaventure, 10). Littre gives He and ilot for what we would call a "block of houses" ; usage in America was obviously different. Cf . also islettes, islettes de bois in the Henry and Thompson Journals (I, 66), which Coues explains as a term Canadian voyageurs used for patches or clumps of trees bordering a river. In all of these instances we are obviously concerned with the sem- blance of an island, not with the reality.

90 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

Illinois. The Illinois Country during the French Regime was all that portion of the Mississippi Valley, on both banks, in- cluding the Ohio and Missouri Valleys as well as that of the Illinois, from the Ohio north through the hunting grounds of the Illinois Indians. The chef-lieu at Fort Chartres was the seat of government not merely for the settlements in the im- mediate neighborhood but also for Vincennes and Arkansas Post. Originally a part of Canada, during the first third of the eighteenth century its possession was a matter of dispute between Canada and Louisiana; it was included, however, in the grant to the Mississippi Company in 1717 and came to be effectively a dependency of Louisiana. For an excellent descrip- tion of the region, the people, and their ways of living, consult Alvord, The Illinois Countnj, 190-224.

After the evacuation of the eastern portion of this country by Saint Ange in October, 1765, the country west of the Mis- sissippi from the Ohio northwards was known in both French and Spanish documents as the "western part of the Illinois" until the district of New Madrid was set up. In its last colonial decade the region north of New Madrid was generally named in documents "Upper Louisiana." See, however, Missouri.

The name was customarily written Aux Illinois: at the Illi- nois (in the country of the Illinois),

inconnu. See bois inconnu.

indien, indienne; indien (indienne) rouge; n. and adj., m. and f. Indian, red Indian. These forms were rarely used before 1840. See naturel, sauvage.

isle, islette. See He.

J

jambo, n.m. A sambo; a person of mixed blood, generally Indian and negro.

Bossu has a definition varying from the customary: "Ceux [qui sont nes] d'un Sauvage & d'une metive sont nommes jamhos" (Nouveaux Voyages clans VAmerique Septentrionale, 334, n.). See zambo.

jasmine, n.f. The papaw. Bossu used this form in his Nou- veaux Voyages aux Indes Occidentales, II, 118-119. See assi- mine.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 91

jassemlnier, n.m. The papaw tree. This form of assiminier

(q.v.) was used by Berquin-Duvallon (Vue de la Colonic, 112). jongler, V. intr. To waver between two propositions (Kurz,

Journal, 104). jonglerie, n.f. Indian magic or medicine; the medicine-hut

(Clapin, 192; Chamberlain, "Life and Growth of Words," 142;

John McDonnell, "The Red River," 276-277). See medecine. jongleur, n.m. An Indian medicine man. The favorite term

with Bossu and other eighteenth century travelers. See

tnedecin, medecine. Jour de TAn,* n.m. New Year's Day. For descriptive accounts

see Primm, "New Year's Day in St. Louis," Papin, "Early St.

Louis," 638-641. Jour des Rois,* n.m. Twelfth Night. See hal dcs rois. journalier, n.m. A day laborer, principally in agriculture.

Farm-hand. Not much in use in the Mississippi Valley because

of slavery. See Jmbitant. journee, n.f. A day's journey, travel, or work.

K

kanikanik. See kiniJdnik.

Kao. Abbreviation for Cahokia.

karancro. More commonly spelled carancro, carcncro (q.v.).

Kas. Abbreviation for Kaskaskia. Aux Kas.: at the village of the Kaskaskia Indians, in the country of the Kaskaskia Indians, at (the town of) Kaskaskia.

The statement made by many nineteenth century writers that Kaskaskia was as old as Philadelphia (founded 1682) was based on a confusion of names. The Kaskaskia Indian villages in the last quarter of the seventeenth century were located on the upper part of the Illinois River and among them in 1675 Marquette established a Jesuit mission. Pressure from the Iroquois forcing the Kaskaskia to move further south, they formed a settlement at the Des Peres River on the right (west) bank of the Mississippi and in that place the Jesuits main- tained a mission from 1700 to 1703. In the latter year Indians and Jesuits moved to the Kaskaskia River location and French- men began to settle. Fifteen years later the Indian village was

92 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

removed a few miles, but the French remained and Kaskaskia became a finnly established colonial town. Consult Garraghan, "The First Settlement on the Site of St. Louis" (Chapters in Frontier History, 73-84) ; Palm, Jesuit Missions of the Illinois Country.

kayac. See cayac.

kiliou, Ind., n.m. The calumet bird (Abel, Tabeau's Narrative, 90 and n. 6). Dr. Abel identifies this bird as the golden eagle. Tixier spoke of the aigle a tete blanche (q.v.), (the bald-headed eagle) as the calumet bird (Travels, 213, 261). See oiseau de calumet, quiliou.

kinikinik, kinikinick, Ind., n.m. An Indian smoking mixture made principally of various kinds of bark. By Ruxton spelled kinnik-kinnik (In the Old West, 174) ; by E. James, kinne canick (Long's Expedition, II, 122) ; by Townsend, kanikanik (Narrative of a Journey, 146) ; by Arese, canicanick (Trip to the Prairies, 93). See bois route.

kiniou, kinuw. See quiliou.

L

laboureur, n.m. A farmer. The word in common use, how- ever, was habitant (q.v.).

In France "owners of means and farmers on a large scale (often called laboureurs) constituted only a small minority of the rural population. . . . The peasants . . . did not all possess the same amount of property. There were some who could live exclusively from the cultivation of their fields, and who con- stituted a sort of peasant aristocracy, the class of laborers" (See, Economic and Social Conditions in France during the Eighteenth Century, 5-6, 15-16).

lait des Francois, n.m. Brandy, whiskey. According to Bossu (Nouveaux Voyages dans VAmerique Septentrionale, 222, n.), this was an Indian term for eau de vie, or firewater. See also Wisconsin Historical Collections, XVII, 381 and n. 2.

lapanie. See marmiton.

large, n.m. The open prairie, the great plains, the interior country.

According to Clapin (358), in Canada the term au large means to be at a distance (in field or wood) from the farm

I

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 93

house. Cable, however, said the phrase, common among the Acadians of Louisiana, was derived from the habits of their seafaring ancestors : au large meant on the open prairie which had much the appearance of the open sea. ''The cottage was au large — far out across the smooth, unscarred turf of the immense prairie" (Bonaventure, 5). Tixier defined au large as "the farthest regions of the prairies" (Travels, 122) , Cham- berlain said that in the north large signified the open country ("Life and Growth of Words," 139). Cf. naviguer au large.

latanier, n.m. The dwarf palm or palmetto (Le Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 48-49; Robin, Voyages, III, 337; Flint, Geography and History of the Mississippi Valley, I, 85).

laurier amande, n.m. The almond-cherry or cherry laurel tree (Robin, Voyages, III, 362; Nuttall, Sylva, II, 18).

laurier tulipier, n.m. The large magnolia or big laurel (Michaux, Sylva, II, 5). Read (47) says that the sweet bay tree in Louisiana is called the laurier doux or le magnolia.

liane blanche, n.f. According to Robin, this was the name given in Louisiana to the broom shrub (Voyages, III, 500).

liar, Hard (1), n.m. The Cottonwood (Carolina) poplar. Cotonnier (q.v.) was used only for the sycamore. "Populus Caroliniana, by the French Creoles [called] Liard, and by the Americans Cotton tree" (Michaux, Travels, 75, 77). Nuttall spoke of seeing "enormous cotton- wood trees (Popuhis angidi- sans) , commonly called yellow poplar, some of them more than six feet in diameter" (Travels, 90). In Spanish documents this word frequently appears liar. Read (47) gives the botani- cal name as Populus deltoides virginiana Sudw. For the cotton- wood poplar see Michaux, Sylva, II, 115-118, 121-122.

liard (2), n.m. A copper coin of 2 deniers value, known also as a double denier (Shortt, Documents Relatifs d la Monnaie, I, 12-13). ^QQlivre (2).

liard amere, n.m. The Canadian name for the narrow-leaved Cottonwood (Fremont, Report of Exploring Expedition, 118).

liasse, n.f. Bundle. In an inventory or auction record, this word may sometimes be read lot.

lieue, n.f. The French post league was 2000 toises or 2.4229 English miles (Clark, Metric Measures, 56).

94 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

ligne, n.f. A linear measure equal to one-twelfth of a French inch. See pied.

lilas Creole, n.m. The China tree. Tixier identified this as azedurac bipinne (Travels, 34). Read (48) says it is the China-Berry or China-Ball Tree (Melia azedarach L.) and adds that it is also known in Louisiana as lilas parasol. An- other common English name for the lilas Creole was "pride of India" (Michaux, Sijlva, III, 3).

llmbourg, n.m. A kind of coarse cloth.

"Une espece de gros drap teint en bleu connu dans ces regions sous le nom de Limbourg, que Ton tire principalement d'Allemagne, est encore une branche de commerce presque aussi considerable que celle des petites couvertures. Ces draps, large de cinq quarts [q.v.], coutent, la piece de seize aunes, quinze a vingt piastres a la Nouvelle-Orleans ; ils s'emploient a faire, pour I'hiver, des vestes et pantalons aux gens de couleur, aux ouvriers, aux habitans des campagnes moins aises. Ce debit est immense parmi toutes les nations sauvages. Ces peuples s'en font des braguets [q.v.'], des mitasses [q.v.], des mantes ou especes de manteaux et des especes de jupes pour les femmes" (Robin, Voyages, II, 106-107).

lisiere de bois, n.f. A strip or border of woods.

"Passe encore les Prairies entrecoupees de lisieres de bois" (Michaux, Journal, 123).

Hsse, n.f. The framework of a canoe.

livre (1), n.f. As a measure of weight the livre equalled 1.079219 English pounds (Alexander, Dictionary of Weights and Measures, 56) .

livre (2), n.f. As a money term, roughly equal to the franc that supplanted it. Never to be translated by the English monetary term, "pound." Officially five livres (sometimes five livres, five sous) equalled one piastre (one dollar) in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Actually, however, if one judges from valuations in inventories and records of sale, as well as from conditions of life, the livre in practice should be thought of as worth about one dollar. E. g., a Saint Louisan who left, in 1772, an estate that included a house and lot in

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 95

town, a barn, two pairs of oxen, two horses, four cows, a boar, thirty-four pigs, nearly one hundred and fifty acres of farm land, two negro men slaves, and other personal property (offi- cial valuation 10,000 livres) certainly had lived in a style a good deal more comfortable than a property of $2,000 would indicate (McDermott, "Paincourt and Poverty"). For coin- age and values, paper money and credit, consult Zay, Histoire Monetaire des Colonies Frangaises; Shortt, Documents Relatifs a la MonTiaie; Surrey, Commerce of Louisiana, 102-154. For individual coins and paper issue consult the proper term in this volume.

French money terms commonly met with, considered in rela- tion to the livre at 20 cents, were :

denier % .000833 ecu $ .60

sol 01 loids d'argent .60

sou 01 gourde 1.00

picaillon 06 14 piastre 1.00

escalin I21/2 piastre gourde 1.00

escalin gourde I21/2 pistole — 2.00

escalin platille 12 1/2 louis d'or 5.00

It must be remembered that this is merely a table showing proportionate value. The shifting of value, the fluctuations caused or marked by French financial decrees are reported in detail in the sources already cited. In the central part of the Mississippi Valley, at least, financial transactions were fre- quently expressed in terms of peltry; at Saint Louis many a contract or inventory named the amount concerned in both silver and shaved deerskins (commonly worth two livres the pound). loge des vieillards, n.f. The lodge of the Old Men.

In the village, the war camp, the hunting camp, it was the custom of the plains Indians to set up two special lodges, one called the lodge (or fire) of the Old Men, the other the lodge (or fire) of the Warriors. The first represented counsel, wis- dom; the second, courage, action. There was not, however, any "membership" based on youth or age. The men of the tribe might attend at the lodge of the Old Men to hear a noted chief advise caution and immediately afterwards adjourn to

96 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

the other lodge where an ambitious partisan was trying to form a war party. See Perrin du Lac, Voyage, 269 ; Tixier, Travels, 172, 218-219.

louis d'argent, n.m. A silver coin worth 3 livres (q.v.).

louis d'or, n.m. A gold coin worth 25 livres (q.v.).

loup a moule, n.m. The prairie wolf (Tache, Esquisse, 118).

loup-cervier, n.m. Lynx. Less common than carcajou (q.v.).

M

magasin, n.m. Storeroom, warehouse. Used for the public

supplies. See garde-magasin. mahls, mahiz. Variants of mdis (q.v.). mai, arbre de mai, n.m. A pole set up as a marker along the

river, similar in purpose to the blazing (see plaque [2]) of a

trail in the forest. See James McKenzie, "The King's Posts

and Journal of a Canoe-Jaunt," 416. maiis, n.m. Corn, Indian corn. For an early account see Le

Page du Pratz, Histoire, II, 3-6. See hie de Turquie, hie d'Inde. mai's boucane, n.m. Roasting ears.

"Quand il [mais] est vert, les negres, les Creoles, les Anglais

surtout, le mangent en epis grille, ce qu'ils nomment viais

boucane" (Robin, Voyages, III, 41-42). Cf. hie groule. See

boucaner (1). maison, n.f. A permanent village of the Indians. "Town" was

the customary American word. So, at least, Tixier used and

explained this word among the Osage (Travels, 127 and n.

128; 176 and n. 18). malson de pieces sur pieces, n.f. The American style cabin

built of hewn logs laid horizontally. For architectural types

in the Mississippi Valley settlements consult Peterson, "French

Houses of the Illinois Country" and "Early Ste. Genevieve and

Its Architecture." maison de poteaux en terre, n.f. The French log cabin built

with upright hewn timbers set in the earth. See maison de

pieces sur pieces. maison de poteaux sur sol, n.f. A house of upright timbers set

on a sill or foundation. A "frame" house, but built of logs.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 97

Sol was frequently spelled sole and solle. See maison de pieces sur pieces.

maison en boulins, n.f. Another name for the maison de pieces sur pieces. See boulin.

majorite, n.f. The Frenchman did not attain his full majority until he reached the age of twenty-five. Consult Viollet, His- toire du Droit Civil Frangais, 509-516. By emancipation (q.v.) he might, however, be granted full legal rights. See also tutelle.

makague, Ind., n.m. A large, birch-bark box or container used by the Chippewa Indians to hold sugar. See Hodge, Handbook of Ameincan Indians, I, 918 ; Wisconsin Historical Collections, XIX, 232, n. 40. Nute writes makuk (Voyageur, 80). Other spellings are mocock, mocuck.

mamelle, n.f. A hill. The name was commonly in use in the central and lower parts of the Mississippi Valley for hills of a particular shape and grouping. Cf . butte, cote, coteau, ecore, teton.

Of the mamelles near Saint Charles, Missouri, Flint said in his Recollections of Ten Years (121), "These are a succes- sion of regular, cone-shaped bluffs, which the French, — who are remarkable for giving names significant of the fancied re- semblance of the thing, — have supposed to resemble the object whose name they bear." Flagg described the same hills in more detail: "The natural eminences which have obtained the appropriate appellation of Mamelles, from their striking re- semblance to the female breast, are a pair of lofty, conical mounds, from eighty to one hundred feet altitude, swelling up perfectly naked and smooth upon the margin of that cele- brated prairie which owes them a name. So beautifully are they paired and so richly rounded, that it would hardly re- quire a Frenchman's eye or that of an Indian to detect the resemblance designated, remarkable though both races have shown themselves for bestowing upon objects in natural scen- ery significant names" {Far West, I, 273). Cf. Maximilian {Travels in North America, III, 139) : "Mr. Lesueur visited the Indian barrows [near Vincennes], of which there are sev- eral in the plain, and which the French settlers call mamelon."

98 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH

mandat, n.m, A government warrant, apparently negotiable. It differed from the billet and the bon in that these last two terms were applied to private notes, whereas the former, mandat, was a note of government issue. Such distinctions in terminology, however, were not always made.

mandragore, n.f. The ginseng plant.

According to Ulloa, "Les marchands en gros de cette meme partie de la Louisiane [the Missouri River and the great plains] , qui font des courses dans ces contrees, disent que non- seulement on y appergoit la figure humaine, mais qu'on y distingue meme les deux sexes" (Memoires Philosophiques, I, 144-145).

mangeur de lard, n.m. A pork-eater, a novice, a greenhorn. A name given by voyageurs and coureurs des bois to the be- ginner who in his first hardships "regrettait souvent le pain et le lard de la table paternelle" (Clapin, 198). See also Maxi- milian, Travels in North Arnerica, II, 25. See blanc-bec, voy- ageur.

mangeur de poulet, n.m. The chicken hawk or hen hawk (Audubon, Ornithological Biography, I, 85, 270). Read (49) gives the present Louisiana form as mangeur poulets; he also (36-37) gives emerillon and eprevier as other Louisiana names for the sparrow hawk or chicken hawk.

mangeur des maringouins, n.m. Goatsucker, nighthawk, bull- bat.

"If we shot a goatsucker, we found in his capacious jaws a ball of mosquitoes, which quite filled it, which are gradually collected and swallowed from time to time; so that the name mangeur des maringouins, given to this bird by the Canadians, is very appropriate" (Maximilian, Travels in North Aynerica, II, 20). Read (95) has Canadian French: "nighthawk"; Louisiana French : "bullbat."

marabou, n.m. A term used to describe the child of a muldtre iq.v.) and a griff e (q.v.) ; a person with five-eighths negro blood (Olmsted, Seaboard Slave States, 583).

marais, n.m. Literally, a swamp, but more properly rendered "lake" or "pond."

In the central part of the Mississippi Valley marais was generally used for ox-bow lakes. Marais Croche near Saint

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FRENCH 99

Charles, Missouri, means "crooked lake" rather than "crooked swamp." On the prairie in Louisiana, according to Cable, the term was used for "the clear circular ponds which one sees of every size and in every direction on the seemingly level land" (Bonaventure, 5). Dorrance (84) has for Missouri French to- day: a "watering hole" for horses and cattle. Cf. also Mc- Kenney (Tour to the Lakes, 221) : "There being no good land- ing for many miles ahead, we entered this place [Grand Ma7'ais'] — which,